The functions of ordinal numerals in a sentence

As a rule ordinal numerals are used as attributes.

 

“No, this is my firstdance,” she said. (Mansfield)

Almost immediately the band started and her secondpartner seemed to spring

from the ceiling. (Mansfield)

 

But they may also be used as subject, as predicative and as object.

 

Then, advancing obliquely towards us, came a fifth.(Wells) (SUBJECT)

Sooner or later, someone is going to tell you about that damned river, so I

might as well be the first.(Wilson) (PREDICATIVE)

...she noted a scar on his cheek, another that peeped out from under the hair of

the forehead, and a thirdthat ran down and disappeared under the starched

collar. (London) (OBJECT)

 

In fractional numbers the numerator is a cardinal and the denominator is a substantivized ordinal: two-thirds, three-sixths.

Decimal fractions are read in the following way: 7.58 — seven point (decimal) five eight.

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The particle is a part of speech giving modal or emotional emphasis to other words or groups of words or clauses. A particle may join one part of the sentence to another (connecting particles). Particles have no independent function in the sentence.

 

§ 2. According to their meaning particles fall under the following main groups:

1. Limitingparticles: only, just, but, alone, solely, merely, barely, etc.

 

I only wanted to make you speak. (Shaw)

Just one question, Mrs. Dartie. Are you still fond of your husband?

(Galsworthy)

Soames was but following in the footsteps of his father. (Galsworthy)

Her name alone was almost enough for one who was terribly susceptible to

the charm of words. (Galsworthy)

He had taken up with it solely because he was starving. (London)

She (Ruth) thought she was merely interested in him (Martin) as an unusual

type possessing various potential excellences, and she even felt philanthropic

about it. (London)

They were spreading not merely on the surface, but within. (Galsworthy)

He barely acknowledged the young fellow’s salute. (Galsworthy)

 

2. Intensifying particles: simply, still, just, yet, all, but, only, quite, even, etc.

 

He made plans to renew this time in places still more delightful. (Galsworthy)

He justdid dislike him. (Galsworthy)

They did not even know that he was married. (Galsworthy)

If Jo were onlywith him! (Galsworthy)

But out there he’ll simplyget bored to death. (Galsworthy)

 

3. Connectingparticles: too, also.

 

Higgins comes in. He takes off the hat and overcoat.

Pickering comes in. He alsotakes off his hat and overcoat. (Shaw)

He (James) was silent. Soames, too,was silent. (Galsworthy)

 

4. Negativeparticles: not, never.

 

No, he was notafraid of that. (Galsworthy)

She looked round her. Nothing — not a thing, no tiniest disturbance

of her hall, nor of the dining room. (Galsworthy)

I neverspoke to him except to ask him to buy a flower off me. (Shaw)

 

Some of the particles are polysemantic, for instance just, only.

 

That’s justhis way of talking. (Dreiser) (LIMITING PARTICLE)

Why, I think, that’s a terrible price to ask for it, justawful. (Dreiser)

(INTENSIFYING PARTICLE)

French people onlycome to England to make money. (Galsworthy)

(LIMITING PARTICLE)

If onlythere were a joyful future to look forward to! (Galsworthy)

(INTENSIFYING PARTICLE)

 

Almost all the particles are homonymous with other parts of speech, chiefly with adverbs (simply), but also with conjunctions (but), pronouns (all), and adjectives (only). The particles else, solely, merely have no homonyms

 

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The preposition is a part of speech which denotes the relations between objects and phenomena. It shows the relations between a noun or a pronoun and other words.

Usually the preposition is not stressed and stands before the word it refers to.

 

Desert moved quickly to the windows. (Galsworthy)

 

Sometimes, however, a preposition may be separated from the word it refers to and placed at the end of the sentence or clause. In that case it is stressed.

 

But he sounds as though he knows what he’s talking about. (Wilson)

 

The preposition may be weakly stressed before a pronoun.

 

She wrote the words to them herself, and other poems. (Galsworthy)

 

The preposition is stressed when its meaning is emphasized.

 

The book was in the table, not on it.

 

§ 2. As to their morphological structure prepositions fall under the following groups:

(1) simple (in, on, at, for, with, etc.);

(2) derivative(behind, below, across, along, etc.);

(3) compound(inside, outside, within, without, etc.);

(4) composite(because of, in front of, in accordance with, etc.).

 

§ 3. According to their meaning prepositions may be divided into prepositions of place and direction (in, on, below, under, between, etc.), time(after, before, at, etc.), prepositions expressing abstract relations (отвлеченные отношения) (by, with, because of, with a view to, etc.).

The lexical meaning of some prepositions is quite concrete (e. g. in, below, between, before, after, till, etc.), while that of some other prepositions may be weakened to a great extent (e. g. to, by, of).

For instance, the preposition to generally indicates direction or movement towards something:

 

Every night Sissy went to Rachel’s lodging, and sat with her in her small neat

room. (Dickens)

 

But in some cases the lexical meaning of the preposition to is weakened.

 

...all the house belongs to me, or will do in a few years. (Ch. Bronte)

 

Some prepositions are polysemantic and may express different relations; e. g. for:

 

Never once had Erik sensed the struggle for life. (Wilson) (purpose.)

Even when their eyes had met and her sister had approached the bed, Louisa

lay for minutes looking at her in silence... (Dickens) (time)

She could scarcely move her head for pain and heaviness, her eyes were

strained and sore, and she was very weak. (Dickens) (cause)

 

§ 4. Some prepositions are homonymous with adverbs and conjunctions.

For instance, the prepositions after and before are homonymous with the adverbs after and before and with the conjunctions after and before.

 

There is an old saying that if a man has not fallen in love before forty, he had

better not fall in love after. (Shaw) (ADVERB)

When he got back to Ann Arbor, he found Savina in a state of excitement

because Trasker had heard from Regan after Erik had left. (Wilson)

(CONJUNCTION)

“Where do you intend to stay tonight?” she asked after a moment. (Wilson)

(PREPOSITION)

The colour rushed into Bosinney’s face, but soon receded, leaving it sallow-

brown as before. (Galsworthy) (ADVERB)

He did not write to her, and it was almost a year before he began to see her

again. (Wilson) (CONJUNCTION)

This letter seemed to afford her peculiar satisfaction; she read it through twice

before replying to the landlady. (Mansfield) (PREPOSITION)

 

Though identical inform, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions are different parts of speech. The adverb, unlike the preposition and conjunction, serves as part of the sentence, e. g. after is an adverbial modifier of time, etc.

 

§ 5. Some prepositions (on, in, by, over, off, up) are homonymous with postpositions.¹

¹ See Chapter VII, § 2.

 

A preposition as well as a postposition does not perform any independent function in the sentence. But while a preposition denotes the relation between objects and phenomena, a postposition is part of a composite verb.

A preposition is not usually stressed, while a postposition usually bears the stress.

 

We’ve got to live on what we earn. (Cronin) (PREPOSITION)

He liked Erik more than any of the assistants the department had taken on in a

long time, as much as he could like, one of the younger men. (Wilson)

(POSTPOSITION)

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The conjunctionis a part of speech which denotes connections between objects and phenomena. It connects parts of the sentence, clauses, and sentences.

 

Sadie brought them in andwent back to the door. (Mansfield)

...the blinds were down in the dining-room andthe lights turned on — and all

the lights were red-roses. (Mansfield)

The other day I was saying to Fabermacher that Haviland isn’t really cruel,

he’s just thoughtless. AndFabermacher said that was the cruellest thing about

the human race. Andhe’s right. (Wilson)

 

§ 2. According to their morphological structureconjunctions are divided into the following groups:

(1) simple conjunctions (and, or, but, till, after, that, so, where, when, etc.).

Some of the simple conjunctions are homonymous with prepositions, adverbs, and pronouns.

(2) derivative conjunctions (until, unless, etc.).

(3) compound conjunctions (however, whereas, wherever, etc.). These conjunctions are few.

(4) composite conjunctions (as well as, as long as, in case, for fear (that), on the ground that, for the reason that, etc.).

Some conjunctions are used in pairs (correlatively): both... and, either... or, not only... but (also), neither... nor, whether... or.

 

If anyone had asked him if he wanted to own her soul, the question would

have seemed to him bothridiculous andsentimental. (Galsworthy)

...nor would John Reed have found it out himself; he was not quick either of

vision or conception. (Ch. Bronte)

Her son had not onlycome home, buthe had come home a good person.

(Abrahams)

Well, they were honest eyes, he concluded, and in them was neither

smallness normeanness. (London)

He was aware of vague memories of rain and wind and snow, but whetherhe

had been beaten by the storm for two days or two weeks he did not know.

(London)

§ 3.As to their functionconjunctions fall under two classes:

(1) coordinating conjunctions;

(2) subordinating conjunctions.

Coordinating conjunctions join coordinate clauses in a compound sentence (a), or homogeneous parts in a simple sentence (b), or homogeneous subordinate clauses in a complex sentence (c), or independent sentences (d).

 

(a) He had said he would stay quiet in the hall, buthe simply couldn’t any

more; andcrossing the gravel of the drive he lay down on the grass beyond.

(Galsworthy)

(b) He opened his eyes andstared quietly at the pure sky. (Wilson)

(c) Hers was that common insularity of mind that makes human creatures

believe that their color, creed, and politics are best and right andthat other

human creatures scattered over the world are less fortunately placed than they.

(London)

(d) Fabermacher wasted no time on a comedy of errors, and Havi-land

apologized for his mistake. Buthe was not as impressed as Erik had wanted

him to be. (Wilson)

 

Subordinating conjunctions generally join asubordinate or dependent clause to a principal clause (a), or adverbial modifiers to the predicate in a simple sentence (b), or sometimes they join homogeneous parts (c).

 

(a) Whenhe was eight, he got work in another mill. (London)

(b) He shook his head a bit as ifin wonder that he had permitted himself to be

caught in such crosscurrents. (Wilson)

(c) My look or something else must have struck her as offensive, for she

spoke with extreme, thoughsuppressed irritation. (Ch. Bronte)