To see it too, wouldn't you?

The perfect participle indicates that the action pre­cedes the action expressed by the finite verb in the sen­tence. Having looked through a magazine he rose and went away. Having tried various topics of conversation she asked him to tell her who all the people at table were.

Participle II has only one form for each of verbs which is passive, be — been, have — had, come — come, love — loved, clean — cleaned, work — worked. There is no corresponding active participle in English, so its func-

tion is performed by a clause. Compare: I don't like books written in the first person. — The woman who wrote the book is a friend of mine.

Passive gerunds can be formed only out of transitive verbs or intransitive verbs with prepositions: She disliked both reading aloud and being read to. He was surprised at being surrounded by his former enemies and being spoken to.

4) as part of the Complex Object after the verbs ma­ke, let, have. He made her cry. Let us be friends. I had them take my baggage.

4. Comment upon the functions of be:

a) The linguistic effects of Anglo-Saxon wars were just as clear-cut. Many Celtic communities were destroy­ed, assimilated, or gradually pushed back westwards and northwards, into the areas we now know as Cornwall, Wales, Cumbria, and perhaps also Scotland. Here the Celtic dialects were to develop in separate ways, resulting in such modern languages as Welsh and Gaelic.

b) Complaints about the state of the English lan­guage and the uses made of it are by no means new. They first appeared five centuries ago, after English had dis­placed French as a respectable vernacular and as the ins­trument for law and administaration, when English was beginning to compete with Latin as the medium for se­rious and scholarly writing. In the fifteenth century a

national standard language was emerging that was based on the dialect of London, the political and judicial capital of the country, but also its commercial, social and intellectual centre. ...Then, as now, the country needed a standard dialect that was not only generally intelligible but also, because of its naturality, did not distract through its regional peculiarities from efficient communication bet­ween people of different parts of the country. But at the end of the fifteenth century the standard language was not yet stable or uniform, though the invention of printing was to hasten its development.

c) By the end of the seventeenth century, conside­rable progress had been made towards the standardization of the printed language in spelling, syntax and vocabulary. It was agreed among the learned that English had reached in the recent past a near-perfect stage, having been purged of its impurities and inconsistencies. A major concern of the eighteenth-century writers was to prevent further change, to preserve English largely as it then was, remo­ving imperfections that they believed were creeping into the language in their own time. Any further changes, they feared, must be for the worse: that language must be pro­tected from corruption.

d) For generations of American children Mother Goose rhymes have been the first contact with the lite­rature of their native language and culture. At home and in their early years at school, the rhythmic lilt of these rhymes delights and instructs them. So well-known are these rhymes and their subjects that allusions to them permeate our adult conversation and writing; without a knowledge of them no English-speaking American has a truly complete literary education. It has been said that

there is something for everyone in Mother Goose. Even scholarly adults are intrigued by her possible origin, by the hidden meaning in the simple verses, and even which historical characters are being lampooned in them.

5. Comment upon the functions of have in the following extracts:

9. Translate into English using modals of supposition:

1. Он был отличным теннисистом и мог бы обы­грать любого. 2. Вчера вечером мы могли пойти в театр, но из-за дождя решили остаться дома. 3. Мы только что пообедали. Ты просто не можешь быть

голодным. 4. Нигде не могу найти свою сумку. На­верное, я оставил ее в магазине. 5. Она не подошла к телефону. Наверное, она спала. 6. Хотя огонь рас­пространялся стремительно, всем удалось спастись.

7. Однажды у него был трудный матч с сильным соперником. Но ему все-таки удалось выиграть.

8. Возможно, цены на бензин снова поднимутся. 9. В последнее время я плохо сплю. 10. Она прошла мимо меня, не поздоровавшись. Должно быть, она меня не видела. 11. На прошлой неделе отменили футбольный матч, но я в любом случае не смог бы играть из-за болезни. 12. Вы целый день путешествовали и, долж­но быть, очень устали. 13. Наверное, он не видел, ку­да идет. 14. В дверь стучат. Это должен быть почталь­он. Он всегда приходит в это время. 15. Он должен сдать экзамен, так как много занимался.

10. Define the function of shall, will, should, would and the grammatical pattern in the following sentences:

1. The children of the village would shout with joy whenever he approached. 2. You should have phoned me at once. 3. I thought that by doing that, I would have solved all my problems at a stroke. 4. He said he wouldn't be late. 5. These poems will assuredly take high rank among the class to which they belong. 6. We will not have this man to reign over us. 7. Whoever commits robbery shall be punished with rigorous imprisonment. 8. For this opinion we shall proceed to give our reasons. 9. The handle turned, but the door would not open. 10. I'm sorry. I shouldn't have said this. 11. In the afternoon he would go out and walk for hours. 12. Will you have a cup

of tea? 13. Let us ask this man what the creature is, and I will stand by what he shall say. 14. It is impossible that you should have said this. 15. Should he come this way, 1 will speak to him.

11. Analyse the italicised verbal forms in terms of the grammatical categories:

a) There are indeed many differences between the way grammar is used in writing English and the way it is used in speaking it. This is only natural. When we are writing, we usually have time to make notes, plan ahead, pause, reflect, change our mind, start again, revise, proof­read, and generally polish the language until we have reached a level which satisfies us. The reader sees only the finished product.

b) Meanwhile, the Bible, which had been appearing in various forms in the vernacular, was approaching the translation in which it was to become for centuries the best-known book in English. The English Bible as it is known today owes its form mainly to the labours of two men, William Tyndale (1490-15360) and Miles Coverdale (1488-1568). Already in the fourteenth century John Wycliff (1324-84) had laboured to make an English ver­sion, but his renderings were based on the Vulgate, or La­tin version, and his English was literal and stiff. His influence on the development of English prose has been exaggerated. Tyndale, who at Vilvorde in 1536 was strangled at the stake for heresy, and his body burnt, gave to his prose the simple vigour of phrase and the strong cadences, with which the Authorized Version of 1611 has made us familiar.

c) An experiment was carried out in the USA in which a number of people acting as judges were asked to listen to tape-recordings of two different sets of speakers. Many of the judges decided that speakers in the first set were black, and speakers in the second set white — and they were completely wrong, since it was the first set which consisted of white people, and the second of Blacks. But they were wrong in a very interesting way. The speakers they had been asked to listen to were ex­ceptional people: the white speakers were people who had lived all their lives amongst Blacks, or had been raised in areas where black cultural values were dominant; the black speakers were people who had been brought up, with little contact with other Blacks, in predominantly white areas.

d) Our perception of the English language and how it works has changed radically in the present generation. In the High Victorian world the pristine philologists saw the language in much the same way as they saw Victorian society: as a pyramid. At the top was the Queen's English (not, as it happens, spoken very well by Her Majesty, who retained a faint German accent all her life; she wrote it with naive charm and enthusiasm).

e) It is sometimes thought that only a few people speak regional dialects. Many restrict