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The use of articles with names of languages



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Names of languages when the noun language does not follow them are used without articles:

She knows English.

Note the peculiar use of the definite article in:

(1) It is a translationfrom the English (the French etc.)

(2) Whatis the English (the French etc.) for “сосна”?

The definite article is used if the noun is modified by a particularizing attribute:

The English of America differs from the English of England.

When the noun language is mentioned the definite article is used:the English language,the German language.

USE OF ARTICLES WITH NOUNS MODIFIED BY CERTAIN ADJECTIVES, PRONOUNS AND NUMERALS

 

§ 32. Most.

(a) Most +adjective.

The definite article is used when most serves to form the super­lative degree of an adjective.

This is the most interesting chapter in the book.

The use of the indefinite article shows that a high degree of a quality is meant. Most has the same meaning as very, exceedingly.

Caroline found that the old maid had been a most devoted daughter and sister. (Ch. Bronte)

Nоte. Occasionally the form of the superlative degree does not express com­parison, but a high degree of a quality.

He listened withthe most profound attention.

He listened withthe deepest attention.

The same phenomenon is found in Russian: Он слушал с глубочайшим вниманием.

(b) Most + оf + noun.

When definite people or things are meant the noun is used with the definite article and most is followed by the preposition of.

Most ofthe flowers in the garden were planted by the school-children.

Most of the gentlemen looked both angry and uncomfortable. (Voynich)

We say most, not most of the, when we do not mean definite people or things. The noun is used in a general sense.

Most flowers smell sweet.

 

§ 33. Few, a few, the few, little, a little, the little.

Few means “мало”, it has negative meaning.

A few means “несколько”, it has a positive meaning.

The few means “те немногие (которые)”.

He was a very good man. There are few like him in the world to-day. (Abrahams)

He left after a few moments. (Dreiser)

You need not fear to hearthe few remaining words we have to say. (Dickens)

Little means “мало”, it has a negative meaning.

A little means “некоторое количество”, it has a positive meaning.

The little means“то небольшое количество (которое)”.

We can't go skiing today. There is too little snow.

We have a little time. Let us take a walk in the garden.

Don't wastethe little time you have.

 

§ 34. Two, the two, three, the three etc.

Two means “два”. The two means “оба, те два”.

Two students entered the room.

The two friends traveled together.

The two books you lent me proved very interesting.

 

§ 35. The second, a second.

The second is an ordinal numeral meaning “второй”.

The second attempt proved more successful than the first.

A second means “another, one more”.

Having eaten the gruel, Oliver asked for a second portion.

In the third, a third, the fourth, a fourth etc. we see the same difference in meaning.

He made an experiment, which proved his theory.

He made a second, a third, a fourth experiment with the same results.

A second time means “once more”.

I rang the bell, but nobody answered it, so I had to ring asecond time.

§ 36. Another, the other.

The pronoun another has two meanings:

(а) “какой-либо другой'”.

Give me another pen. I don't like this one.

(b) “еще один”.

I am thirsty; I should likeanother cup of tea.

The other means “определенный другой”.

There are two books here; take one and I'll take the other.

 

§ 37. Last, the last.

Nouns modified by the adjective last are always used with the definite article except in the expressions last month, last year, last week, last summer (winter, autumn, spring).

The last word remained with George.

Last summer, in Switzerland, he was quite well. (Voynich)

§ 38. Next, the next.

Next means “будущий” when referring to time: next month, next week.

The next means “следующий”: the next room, at the next les­son.

Next time means: “в следующий раз”.

We shall discuss this matter next time.

In reference to time viewed from the past both next and the next mean “следующий”.

We spent a fortnight in Kiev. The next week was spent in Odessa (or: Next week was spent in Odessa).

 

§ 39. A number, the number.

A number of means “many”. It is rendered in Russian by много, ряд.

The number means “число, количество”.

His father and a number of his cronies were in the dining room. (Dreiser)

The number of mistakes he makes is startling.

 

Omission of the Article

Sometimes the article is not used where we naturally expect to find it in accordance with the rules. No change of meaning is observed in these cases.

The article is often omitted in newspaper headings, telegrams, in stage directions.

Gas Blast Kills Woman. (Daily Worker)

Girl Gymnast Keeps Title. (Moscow News)

The article is often omitted with homogeneous members closely connected with each other and joined by the conjunction and. In most cases they go in pairs.

The breakfast was taken away, and that meal over, it was the general custom of uncle and niece to separate. (Ch. Bronte)

Chapter III

THE ADJECTIVE

§ 1. The adjective is a part of speech expressing a quality of a sub­stance.

§ 2. The adjective has the following morphological character­istics:

Most adjectives have degrees of comparison: the comparative degree and the superlative degree.

Thecomparative degree denotes a higher degree of a quality.

She istaller than her sister.

My box issmaller than hers.

Thesuperlative degree denotes the highest degree of a quality.

She is the tallest of the three sisters.

Her box is the smallest of all our boxes.

(The noun modified by an adjective in the superlative degree has the definite article because the superlative degree of the adjective always implies limitation.)

Adjectives form their degrees of comparison in the following way:

(a) By the inflexion -er, -est. (synthetical way);

(b) By placing more and most before the adjective (analytical way),

Monosyllabic adjectives usually form their comparatives and superlatives in the first way, and polysyllabic adjectives in the second way.

 

Adjectives of two syllables that end in -y, -ow, -er, -le form the degrees of comparison synthetically.

happy happier (the) happiest

narrow narrower (the) narrowest

clever cleverer (the) cleverest

simple simpler (the) simplest

Adjectives of two syllables, which have the stress on the last syllable, can form the degrees both in two ways:

complete completer (the) completest

more complete (the) most complete

Some adjectives have irregular forms of degrees of comparison, e.g.:

good better (the) best

bad worse (the) worst

many, much more (the) most

little less (the) least

far farther (the) farthest

further (the) furthest

old older (the) oldest

elder (the) eldest

 

§ 3. Spelling rules.

l. If the adjective ends in a consonant preceded by a stressed short vowel, the consonant is doubled before -er, -est.

sad sadder (the) saddest

big bigger(the) biggest

 

2. If the adjective ends in -y preceded by a consonant, у is changed into i before -er and - est.

busy busier (the) busiest

happy happier (the) happiest

3. If the adjective ends in -e the e is dropped before -er and -est.

brave braver (the) bravest

fine finer (the) finest

 

§ 4. The adjective has the following syntactical characteristics:

In a sentence the adjective may be used as an attribute or as a predicative.

A little fat chap thrust out his underlip and thetall fellow frowned. (Mansfield) (attributes)

Laura was terriblynervous. (Mansfield) (predicative)

The air wasmotionless… (Mansfield) (predicative)

 

§ 5. The Morphological composition of the adjective.

Adjectives are divided into simple, derivative and compound.

1. Simple adjectives are adjectives, which have neither prefixes nor suffixes. They are indecomposable: e.g. good, red, black etc.

2. Derivative adjectives are adjectives, which have derivative elements, suffixes or prefixes or both: beautiful, foolish, hopeless, unkind, unimportant etc.

Productive adjective-forming suffixes are:

-less: friendless, harmless, hopeless

-like: childlike

-ish: childish, foolish

-ed (d): beaded, blue-eyed

Unproductive suffixes are:

-ful: careful

-ible: responsible

-able: reliable

-ant: important

-ent: dependent

-en: woolen

-ous: dangerous

-some: troublesome

Productive adjective-forming prefixes are:

un-: unhappy

pre-: prewar

The unproductive prefix of the adjective is:

in-: incorrect

3. Compound adjectives are adjectives built from two or more stems.

The main types of compound adjectives are as follows:

(a) noun-stem + adjective-stem: snow-white;

(b) noun-stem + participle-stem: life-giving, smoke-dried;

(c) adjective-stem +adjective-stem: deaf-mute;

(d) adjective-stem + noun-stem + suffix -ed: cold-hearted;

(e) noun-stem + noun-stem +suffix -ed: lynx-eyed;

(f) numeral-stem + noun-stem + suffix -ed: four-wheeled;

(g) adverb-stem + noun-stem + suffix -ed: over-peopled.

 

§ 6. The Classification of adjectives.

According to their meaning and grammatical characteristics ad­jectives fall under two classes: (1) qualitative adjectives, (2) rela­tive adjectives.

1. Qualitative adjectives denote qualities of a substance directly, not through its relation to another substance, as size, shape, colour, physical and mental qualities, qualities of general estimation:

little, large, high, soft, hard, warm, white, blue, pink, strong, bold, beautiful, important, necessary, etc.

2. Relative adjectives denote qualities of a substance through their relation to materials (silken, woollen, wooden), to place (Italian, Asian), to time (monthly, weekly), to some action (pre­paratory, rotatory).

§ 7. Grammatical characteristics of qualitative adjectives.

1. Most qualitative adjectives have degrees of comparison:

big bigger (the) biggest

interesting more interesting (the) most interesting

Some qualitative adjectives suchas greenish, darkish, incurable, unsuitable, chief, principal, have no degrees of comparison.

2. They have certain typical suffixes, such as -ful, -less, -ous, -ent, -able, -y, -ish: careful, careless, dangerous, convenient, comfortable, silvery, watery, whitish, shortish.

3. From most of them adverbs can be formed by the suffix -ly:

graceful—gracefully

gay—gaily

4. Most qualitative adjectives can be used as attributes and predicatives.

 

How lovely thelittle river is, with itsdark, changing wavelets! (Eliot) (attributes)

Theyoung man was introduced, and they sat down at the table. (Aldington) (attribute)

But you're nearly asold as I am! (Aldington) (predicative)

The Hartlys thought he was “rich”. George Augustus was so very comfortable ... that he too really thought he was rich! (Aldington) (PREDICATIVES)



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