Compare the use of –ing forms in the English language

Participle I and the gerund compared

Participle I and the gerund are alike in their verbal characteristics, both morphological (the categories of voice and perfect) and syntactical (verbal combinability).

The difference between the two lies in their non-verbal characteristics, that is in their syntactical functions and non-verbal combinability. Participle I, unless substantivized, cannot be used as subject or object, whereas such use is typical of the noun and therefore of the gerund.When used as adverbial modifier or attribute, participle I like an adjective or an adverb is never preceded by a preposition. On the other hand when the gerund is used as attribute or adverbial modifier it is preceded by a preposition like a noun in these functions.

The difference between the two is also to be found in the nominal tendencies of the gerund and the adjectival tendencies of participle I. This is most evident in their function of a predicative and an attribute.

As predicative participle I gives qualitative characteristics to the subject, thus tending towards an adjective, as in:

The sound of the thunder was deafening.

The gerund does not qualify the subject, it rather identifies the sub­ject by revealing its meaning, as in:

His favourite occupation is collecting stamps (or playing football or just football).

When a gerund or a participle is used as an attribute, the difference between them does not lie only in the absence, or presence of the preposition, but also in their relationship to the modified noun. (For details see § 132 on premodifying attributes). Participle I denotes an action that the person or thing performs or experiences:

What is the name of the man talking with your sister?

Thus the modified noun denotes the doer of the action expressed by the participle.

The gerund usually reveals the meaning of the modified noun, which never denotes the performer of the action. That was my last chance of seeing him.

There was no hope of saving her.

When used as an adverbial modifier, the gerund is more varied in its application than the participle because it is used with different prepositions.

The participle and the gerund are interchangeable when used as adverbials of time characterizing the verb through simultaneous or prior events:

 

Discussing the plan In discussing the plan	we heard a lot of helpfull suggestions.
Entering the room On entering the room	he closed the door.
After discussing the plan Having discussed the plan	we started carring it out.

Only the gerund is possible when the starting or the final point of the action is meant, as in: He has never been at his native town since leaving it in 1964.

You must get your parents’ permission before leaving for the mountains.

Yet there are a number of cases, especially among predicative constructions, where the -ing form may be treated either as a participle or a gerund, the difference between them being neutralized, as in:

I remember them staying with us once. Fancy him saying so!

 

Modal verbs to express certainty and possibility.

Can

a) possibility due to circumstances:

Anybody can make a mistake. Ошибаться может каждый.

You can hardly blame him for that. Вряд ли можно его за это винить.

b) possibility due to the existing rules of laws:

 

In old days a man could be sentenced to death for a small crime. В старые времена можно было

приговорить человека к смерти за небольшое преступление.

c) possibility of the idea (the so-called “theoretical” possibility):

In general statements of possibility can has roughly the same meaning as “sometimes”.

The sea can be rough. = The sea is sometimes rough. Mope иногда бывает бурным.

Can is generally used in questions about possibility and in statements about impossibility.

Can this be true? (Is it possible that this is true?) Неужели это правда?

This can’t be true. (It is impossible that this is true.)

d) possibility due to permission

Can and cannot(can't) are the most common words used for asking, giving or refusing permission.

Can l borrow your calculator?

You can come with us if you want to.

Past tense: You could have helped her. (It didn’t actually happen)

Could is used to refer to the possibility of some future actions, especially when suggestions are being made.

When you go to London, you could stay with Pat.

May

Possibility of the fact (the so-called “factual possibility”).This meaning occurs only in af^lfirmative (утвердительных) sentences.

He may/might/could be delayed in traffic tomorrow afternoon because there is a demonstration. (It is possible, it is likely in a specific situation)

May expressing possibility is avoided in questions and in negative sentences, instead can is used.

He may/might have been late. (It was possible but luckily it didn’t happen.)

To be + infinitive

Possibility.

I n this meaning the passive form of the infinitive is used unless (если только) it is a question beginning with the interrogative adverb how. Here the meaning of the modal expression comes very close to that of the verb can.

How are they to know that you are well connected it you do not show it by your costume? (Shaw) - Как могут они знать, что у вас большие связи, если вы не показываете этого своей манерой одеваться?