Police, machine, garage

3) A manifestation of constant accent in word derivation. We are speaking of the retentive tendency. This is the tendency to retain the accent in a derivative on the same syllable on which it falls in the original or parent-word. The retentive tendency manifests itself in the retention of the primary accent of the parent word.

'person - 'personal

'reason - 'reasonable

'interest - 'interesting

'change - 'changeable

4) Semantic tendency determines accentuation in certain categories of words. These are words with the so-called separable prefixes and compound words. The majority of these classes of words have two equally strong stresses – the so-called double-stress. Both parts of such words are considered to be of equal semantic importance.

a. Words with certain prefixes (underestimate, unknown)

b. Compound adjectives (Well-bressed, blue-eyed, hard-working, easy-going)

c. Compound verbs with preposition like adverbs (sit down, get up, take off, put on)

d. Numerals (from 13 to 19)

e. Compound numerals (41, 22…)

f. When compound noun denote a single idea it’s only 1 stress. ('walking-stick)

The rhythmic tendency is very strong in modern English, because in fluent speech words with 2 stresses can be pronounced with one stress under the influence of rhythm.

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A small group of English words which have free accentual variants. By free accentual variants we mean different but orthoepically equally correct accentuation which must be distinguished from unorthoepic accentuation used in local dialects or professional jargons or simply by uneducated people. (творог – творог are equally correct, but компАс, рапОрт are pronounced by sailors only).

HOspitable-hospItable (both correct)

Industry-indUstry

Word stress performs 3 functions:

1) A constitutive function. It constitutes a word, it organizes the syllables of a word into a language unit having a definite accentual structure.

2) A recognitive function. It consists in a correct accentuation of words which facilitates their recognition and comprehension, because misplaced word stress betrays (выдавать) a foreign accent; do not only hamper understanding but very often produce a comic impression. Word stress enables a person to identify a succession of syllables as a definite accentual pattern of a word. It is just correct accentuation to make a listener to make a process of communication easier. Misplaced word stress prevent from normal understanding.

3) Distinctive function meaning that word stress is capable of differentiating the meaning and forms of words. The opposition of the primary stress can differentiate parts of speech. Similar expressions can be found in Russian.

Similar examples can be found in Russian:

'молодец - моло'дец

'атлас - ат'лас

'здорово - здо'рово

'замок - за'мок

The opposition of the secondary stress to the absence of stress of it is also distinctive.

In conclusion: be careful in using not only primary stress but also secondary stress in English polysyllabic words.

Intonation

1. The concept of intonation in our country and abroad
2. Anatomy (тщательный анализ) of an English intonation group (pattern)
3. Functional approach to intonation

Prosody – просодия

Optional – необязательный

Attitude

Timbre – тембр голоса

Nuclear – ядерный

To emphasize – подчёркивать, ударять

Descending – нисходящий

Ascending – восходящий

To imply – подразумевать, означать

To fulfil - осуществлять

To interpret – интерпретировать

As is known, the information conveyed by a sentence is expressed not only by proper word and grammatical structure, but also by intonation. No sentence can exist without intonation. As Allan says “Sounds constitute the body of words. Words give only a rough guide to meaning, while intonation is the soul of speech”. Different phoneticians define intonation differently.

Soviet phoneticians stayed that intonation is the complex unit of 3 components, formed by variations of voice pitch, loudness (the sentence stress) and tempo (the rate of speech with pausation). Some linguists regard speech timbre as the fourth component of intonation. But up to now timbre hasn’t been sufficiently investigated. Moscow phoneticians speak of three prosodic components of the intonation. The word “prosody” substitutes the term intonation. This complex unit together with the grammatical structure and the lexical composition of the sentence serve to express the speaker’s ideas or thought, his emotions, feelings and attitude, towards the contents of the sentence or reality.

Foreign linguists have another approach to intonation. In the British tradition intonation is associated only with a pitch variation (melody) only. They think it has an important function of conveying a message. Armstrong and Ward: “By intonation we mean the rise and fall of the pitch of the voice when we speak”. Daniel Jones: “Intonation may be defined as the variations that take place in the pitch of the voice in connected speech”. Later he had to admit “there are, however, important relations between intonation and stress in English”. Jimson also interprets intonation as “variation of pitch – rises and falls in pitch level, emphasizing the fact that various degrees of accentuation in an utterance may be signaled by means of intonation”. American phoneticians do not consider stress as a component of intonation, although they also regard voice pitch and stress closely connected with each other. As is known, each syllable is pronounced with a definite voice pitch, each syllable also bears a certain stress; together with tempo they form an intonation pattern (group).

Parts, the intonation pattern consist of:

1) The nuclear tone (ядерный тон) is the most important and imphonic part

Kingdom (a famous British linguist) singles out 7 nuclear tones – low fall, high fall, low rise, high rise, fall rise, rise fall, rise fall rise. First 5 are obligatory, while rise fall and rise fall rise are optional and can be substituted by fall rise.

2) “The tail” (заядерный тон) that follows the nuclear tone, but is not independent. It follows the direction of the nuclear tone and together with the nuclear tone it forms the so-called “terminal tone” (терминальный, конечный тон)

it’s summer

3) The pre-head (предшкала), the first unstressed syllable, which is not so much important. The first unstressed syllable. We can distinguish low pre-head anв high pre-head.

Will you do me a favour? low pre-head

With pleasure mid pre-head