Functions and stylistic effects

1. to emphasize a partial identity of two objects
2. to give new characteristics to the referent
3. to deepen our knowledge of the object described
4. to create imagery

Simile introduces vividness into what we say. Authors and poets utilize simile to convey their sentiments and thoughts through vivid word pictures.

THE STYLISTIC DEVICE OF PERIPHRASIS, VARIETIES AND STYLISTIC FUNCTIONS OF PERIPHRASIS. EUPHEMISM, TYPES AND STYLISTIC FUNCTIONS. DYSPHEMISM. THE PHENOMENON OF DOUBLESPEAK.

PERIPHRASIS is a stylistic device that can be defined as the use of excessive and longer words to convey a meaning which could have been conveyed with a shorter expression, or in a few words. It is an indirect or roundabout way of writing about something. For example, using the phrase “I am going to” instead of “I will” is periphrasis.

Types of Periphrasis

Periphrasis is one type of circumlocution. There are two types of circumlocution, namely periphrasis and ambage. Periphrasis is a roundabout explanation of something, while ambage is an indirect and ambiguous way of expressing things or ideas. The country of the rising sun – Japan. The King of the beasts – lion.

Functions of periphrasis:

· to avoid repetition

· to make the speech more colourful, elevated, figurative as it's based on metaphor and metonymy

· it deepens our knowledge of the object in question

The term EUPHEMISM refers to polite, indirect expressions that replace words and phrases considered harsh and impolite, or which suggest something unpleasant. Euphemism is an idiomatic expression, which loses its literal meanings and refers to something else, in order to hide its unpleasantness. For example, “kick the bucket” is a euphemism that describes the death of a person. In addition, many organizations use the term “downsizing” for the distressing act of “firing” its employees.

Euphemism depends largely on the social context of the speakers and writers, where they feel the need to replace certain words that may prove embarrassing for particular listeners or readers in a particular situation.

They are used in different spheres of our life:

1. to replace so-called unmentionables: parts of the body, functions of body… toilet à water closet, WC

2. in moral spheres. die à pass away

3. medical sphere – to name diseases. Tb ß tuberculosis; cr ß cancer;

4. in parliament. lie à be misinformed

5. politics. poor à disadvantaged, underprivileged, low-income groups.

6. mass media – to manipulate readers' opinion. unemployment à redundancy

7. military sphere. friendly fire ß be killed by the fire of you allies;

DYSPHEMISM is originated from the Greek word dys, means “miss,” or “none,” and pheme, which means “reputation,” or “speech.” It is a figure of speech that is defined as the use of disparaging or offensive expressions instead of inoffensive ones. Dysphemism is the use of negative expressions instead of positive ones. A speaker uses them to humiliate or degrade the disapproved person or character.

Types of dysphemism:

• Synecdoche – It is used to describe something as a whole like, “she is a prick.”

• Dysphemistic Epithets – The use of animal names, such as “pig,” “bitch,” “rat,” “dog,” or “snake.”

• Euphemistic Dysphemism – This is when a soft expression is used without offending.

• Dysphemistic Euphemism – It is used as a mockery between close friends without any animosity.

• “-ist” Dysphemism – Targeted at a particular ethnicity.

• Homosexual Dysphemism – These terms are used regarding homosexuality like, “gay,” “faggot,” and “queer.”

• Name Dysphemism – It is used when someone is called by his name, rather than by using his proper title, such as “How are you Bill?” (Instead of “Uncle Bill”).

• Non–verbal Dysphemism – It is used when offending someone with gestures.

• Cross–cultural Dysphemism – Different slang terms are used as dysphemistic in one culture; on the other hand, they might have a totally different meaning in other cultures. For instance, “fag” is a slur used for gay man in American English, whereas, in British English it used for a cigarette.

DOUBLESPEAK is language that deliberately obscures, disguises, distorts, or reverses the meaning of words. Doublespeak may take the form of euphemisms (e.g. "downsizing" for layoffs, "servicing the target" for bombing), in which case it is primarily meant to make the truth sound more palatable. It may also refer to intentional ambiguity in language or to actual inversions of meaning. In such cases, doublespeak disguises the nature of the truth. Doublespeak is most closely associated with political language.

"Reducing costs" instead of "cutting your salary"

"Gently used" instead of "used and horribly beaten up"

"Collateral damage" instead of "multiple fatalities"

"Pre-emptive strike" instead of "unprovoked attack"

"Enhanced interrogation" instead of "torture"

"Ethnic cleansing" instead of "genocide"

"Ill advised" instead of "a terrible idea"