INTRODUCTION TO ANALYSIS

Петрозаводский государственный университет

Кафедра иностранных языков гуманитарных факультетов

Учебно-методическое пособие по аналитическому чтению на английском языке

Для студентов II курса исторического факультета

Автор - составитель: Шерехова О. М.

Настоящее пособие предназначено для исполь­зования как на аудиторных занятиях по аналитическому чтению, так и при самостоятельной работе студентов над анализом текста. Рекомендации содержат примерную схему анализа, выражения и речевые клише, исполь­зуемые при анализе, необходимый литературоведческий и стилистический минимум, аутентичные тексты, вопросы и задания к ним.

Введение

Данное учебно-методическое пособие предназначено для студентов 2 – 3 курсов гуманитарных факультетов. Пособие знакомит студентов с основами теории анализа художественного произведения, способствует формированию представлений об основных литературоведческих терминах и стилистических приемах, а также дает возможность применить эти знания на практике в процессе непосредственного анализа художественных произведений англоязычных авторов.

Данные материалы включают аутентичные тексты, систему аналитических заданий, методические рекомендации по их выполнению, примерный план анализа произведения, глоссарий стилистических терминов, а также список словосочетаний и предложений необходимых для анализа текста.

Пособие состоит из двух частей. Первая часть посвящена теоретическим вопросам анализа текста. Во второй части представлены пять текстов англоязычных авторов и задания для работы с ними.

Данное пособие может использоваться в качестве основы организации работы над анализом текста с привлечением дополнительных материалов.

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO ANALYSIS

A literary work is an artistic whole which is created by the interaction of all its elements, the characters, setting, plot, plot structure, language, literary techniques, etc. The writer employs all the different linguistic and extra linguistic elements in order to accomplish his purpose – to convey the message and impress the reader.

Contents. There are different kinds of contents in a literary work - surface and hidden. The surface contents embrace the plot, plot structure, events, and actions, the setting, characters, their development, both physical and/or psychological. The hidden contents are the theme, the message, the implications encoded in the work. To understand the message the reader tries to discover what lies beyond the surface contents, what the author's motives were for writing the work. The plot with its characters, actions and setting forms the so called “surface contents” of a literary work. The surface contents may entertain and keep a reader curious. Some read only to learn what happens next. But a skilled reader discovers what lies beyond the surface contents. He looks for the theme and the message.

The theme of a story is the main area of interest treated in the story. There are stories on the theme of love. There are books on the theme of family relations, or on the anti-war theme. The theme of the story implies the problem which the literary work raises. Within a single work the basic theme may alternate with rival themes and their relationship may be very complex. The most important idea (problem) that the author expresses in the process of developing the theme is the message of the work.

The messagedoesn't lie on the surface; it is expressed implicitly, i.e. indirectly, often through implications. Implication is the suggestion that is not expressed directly but understood or implied. Implication may be conveyed by different techniques and means such as contrast (verbal and non-verbal), parallelism, recurrent of events or situations, symbols, arrangement of plot structure, etc.

The author's message is closely connected with the author's attitude, even if the writer assumes an impartial and detached tone, he can't present his characters without suggesting a definite attitude in the reader's mind. It is mainly through the characters, their actions, deeds, that the message is revealed. The protagonist is often considered to be the message itself. Besides that, the message cannot be revealed without taking into account the theme of the story and the title.

The title is the first element to catch the eye of the reader but its function may be revealed only retrospectively (after reading the whole story). It acquires its precise meaning when related to the whole story. It may acquire a symbolic meaning. Sometimes it may acquire a totally different meaning contrary to the first understanding.

On revealing the author's message the reader generally analyses his rational and emotional attitude to the work and draws his own conclusion which is the objective message. It may be broader than the author's, because it's based on more profound historical experience.

The effectiveness of the writer's presentation of the massage depends on how credible and exciting the plot is, how lifelike and convening the characters are, how expressive the language is and how well the literary techniques are used.

The plot of a story is a series (sequence) of events or incidents of which the story is composed and in which the characters are involved. The writer arranges the events ordering them as he sees fit. The events in a plot need not always involve physical movement; the movement may be psychological, revealing the changes in the psychological state of a character. Thus it may include what a character says or thinks as well as what he does. But it leaves out description and analysis and concentrates on major happenings.

The plot may be rich or scarce (poor) in events (plotless). Yet each event is related to the theme, the message, the conflict, the development of the characters. The plot always involves character conflict.

Conflictin fiction is a clash of actions, ideals, desires or wills; it is the opposition between forces or characters. There are two types of conflicts – external and internal.

External conflicts:

(1) Man against man; the main character is pitted against (opposed to) some other person or group of people.

(2) Man against nature (or environment). When man is in conflict with some external force (physical nature).

(3) Man against society or the established order in the society (poverty, inequality, injustice), for example, the conflict between one set of values against another set of values.

Internal conflict is the conflict of man against himself, against his own nature, which takes place within one character.

The conflict may be physical (fist or gun fight), mental, emotional or moral. The central character in the conflict, whether one sympathizes with him or he is an unsympathetic person, is referred to as the protagonist. The forces arranged against him are the antagonist (persons, things, conventions of society, states of his own character).

In some stories the conflict is single, clear-cut and identified, in others it is multiple, various and subtle. A person may be in conflict with other persons, with society or nature and with himself, all at the same time and sometimes he may be involved in conflict without being aware of it.

Suspenseis the quality in a story that impels the reader to read on to answer his questions and satisfy his curiosity. An accomplished writer keeps the reader in suspense (achieves suspense) by different stylistic devices. In cheap escape fiction suspense is artificially created and gratifies the readers' crude curiosity while in more sophisticated pans of fiction suspense leads the readers from curiosity to anxiety about the fate of the characters. Suspense may be heightened by retardation, the withholding of information until the appropriate time.

Plot structure is the arrangement of events, incidents, actions. The main components of plot structure (structural composition) form exposition. In the exposition, an introductory part of the story, the author introduces the theme, the characters and establishes the setting. It may be compressed into one sentence, embrace an opening paragraph or be extended into several paragraphs.

The second structural component is complications or the development of rising action as well as thoughts and feelings.

The events become tenser as they move towards the crucial moment in the story, the key events, the moment of the highest intensity of the conflict - the climax.

The events immediately following the climax and bringing the actions to an end make up denouement. It is the unwinding of the action.

The components usually occur in the following order: exposition, complications, climax, denouement; but the author may rearrange the components which create a certain effect - it may introduce a necessary mood, create and increase suspense and tension, and affect the reader's emotional response to the story.

The events of the plot are generally localized, i. e. they are set in a particular place and time.

Setting. For the setting the writer chooses (selects) most relevant details which would suggest the whole scene. In some stories the setting is scarcely noticeable, in others it plays a very important role.

The functions of the setting may vary.

It helps to evoke the necessary atmosphere or mood (esp. descriptions of nature).

It may reinforce characterization by either paralleling or contrasting the actions (suggest similarity or contrast).

It may reflect the inner state of a character.

A realistic environment (including geographical names, historical dates and names, allusions to historical events) tends to increase the credibility of the whole plot - the reader accepts the characters and their actions more readily.

A surprise ending is an element of plot, like suspense or climax. The escape story supplies a surprise ending more frequently than does the interpretive. It may be a cheap trick or it may carry significance (a) when the author withholds the information that the reader ought to have been given earlier, or the surprise is brought about as the result of an improbable coincidence, or unlikely series of small coincidence (b) when the ending that comes at first as a surprise seems perfectly logical and natural as we look back over the story. Its justification comes when it serves to open up or to reinforce the meaning of the story.

Author. The narrative method involves such aspects as: a) who narrates the story and b) the way the narrator stands in relation to the events and to the other characters. The story may be told by:

the omniscient author (the third person narrator);

the observer author (the third person narrator);

the first person narrator.

In the 3d person narration the author tells the story from the omniscient point of view. He tells the story anonymously and interpreting the characters actions, motives end feeling; he reproduces the characters' thoughts and comments on their actions. His knowledge is unlimited. He is free to go wherever he wishes, to peer inside the minds, and hearts of his characters at will. He knows all and can tell us as much or as little as he pleases.

The omniscient point of view is the most flexible and permits the widest scope. The omniscient author may wander away from the subject of the narration to state his personal view or to make a general statement - which is known as the author's digression. The omniscient author may reveal his attitude to the characters, his view point on their actions, etc; or he may assume a detached attitude, telling the readers all about his characters, concealing his own point, without giving his own analysis of their actions, behavior, etc.

The observant author tells the story in such a way that we are given the impression of witnessing the events as they happen, we see the actions, and hear the conversations but we don't really enter into the minds of the characters. The author is not there to explain and we can only infer what the characters feel or what they are like. The observer author stimulates the reader to form his own impression and make his own judgments. This form of narration is called the objective point of view.

In the limited omniscient point of view the author tells the story in the third person but he tells it from the view point of one of the characters he looks at the events through his eyes and through his mind, he may interpret his thoughts and behavior. The chosen character may be a major or a minor character, a protagonist or an observer.

The 1^st person narration is a very effective means of revealing the character who narrates. The author disappears in one of the characters who tells the story. The character may be protagonist, observer, a major or a minor character. The narrator tells what he thinks and feels and the 1^st hand testimony increases the immediacy und freshness of the impression and the credibility of the story which tends to be more convincing. The narrator often assumes the informal note, addresses the reader directly and establishes a personal relationship with him (we, you). The reader is treated trustfully as one to whom the narrator confides his personal thoughts. On account of all that it is the inner world of the character narrator that is generally in the focus of interest.

It makes a difference if the story is told by a major or a minor character. In the first case the narrator represents internal analysis of events in the second - outside observation of events. The limitation of this method is that the reader gets a biased understanding of the events and other characters; he sees them through the perception of the narrator.

The narrative method conditions the language of the story. The language of the omniscient author is always literary. When the story is told by the character, the language becomes a means of characterization. The social standing of the character is marked by the use of either standard or nonstandard lexical units and syntactical structures. The narrator's language reflects his outlook (limited, naive, objective, primitive), his pattern of cognition, his psychology. That is why most of the stories told by the main character are deeply psychological.

The narrative method may affect presentational sequence of events. A story may have

(a) a straight line narrative presentation, when the events are arranged as they occur, in chronological order;

(b) a complex narrative structure, when the events are not arranged in chronological order and when there are flashbacks to past events;

(c) a circular pattern, when the closing event in the story returns the reader to the introductory part;

(d) a frame structure, when there is a story within a story. The two stories contrast or parallel.

(Докучаева И. В. Аналитическое чтение художественной литературы на английском языке)

STYLISTIC DEVICES

Now you can see some of the most important stylistic devices (also called rhetorical devices or figures of speech) – they are not only useful for analysing texts, but also for creating your own texts. Stylistic devices make your speeches, essays etc. more interesting and lively and help you to get and keep your reader’s / listener’s attention. They do not exist in the language as the units ready for use. They are abstract patterns of the language filled with a definite content when used in speech.

Epithet [ˈepɪθet] is a word or a group of words giving an expressive characterization of the object described.

It is used:

- to show individual attitude of the speaker towards the person or thing described.
silvery laugh серебристый смех

e.g. a thrilling tale

a sharp smile

Simile [ˈsɪməli] is an imaginative comparison that shows partial identity of two objects belonging to two different classes.

Simile is used:

- to characterize the given objects or phenomena;

- to create an image;

- to bring out unexpected, striking similarities of different objects.

e.g. The boy seems to be as clever as his mother.

Irony [ˈaɪrəni] is using a word in a sense that is opposite of its usual meaning, There is always a contrast between the notion named and the notion meant.

Irony is used:

- to intensify the evaluative meaning of the utterance

- to produce humorous effect;

- to express very subtle, almost imperceptible nuances of meaning;

- to show irritation, displeasure, pity, regret, etc.

e.g. She turned with the sweet smile of an alligator.

How clever you are! (Подразумевается обратное значение - глупый.)

Hyperbole [haɪˈpɜː(r)bəli] is an exaggerated statement.

It is used:

- to exaggerate quantity or quality;

- to serve expressive and emotive purposes;

- to produce some humorous effect.

e.g. I have told you it a thousand times.

Litotes [ˈlaɪtəʊtiːz]/understatement [ˈʌndə(r)ˌsteɪtmənt]) is expressing an idea by means of negating the opposite idea.

e.g. a cat-sized horse лошадь. Her face isn't a bad one.

Periphrasis [pəˈrɪfrəsɪs]is a stylistic device, which is used to replace the name of an object by description of its most specific features.

It is used:

- to bring out and intensify some features or properties of the given object;

- to achieve a more elegant manner of expression (18-19 century);

- to avoid monotonous repetition.

e.g. The big man upstairs hears your prayers.

Euphemism [ˈjuːfəˌmɪzəm] is a word that replaces another word of similar but stronger meaning.

It is used:

- to soften an otherwise coarse or unpleasant idea, to produce mild effect;

- to avoid any kind of discrimination (agism, sexism, etc.

e.g. toilet → lavatory/loo

Oxymoron [ˌɒksiˈmɔːrɒn]is an attribute or an adverbial combination of two contradictory or incongruous words.

It is used:

- to bring out new shades of meaning by putting together semantically contradictory words;

- to emphasize the emotive meaning;

- to show the author’s subjective individual perception of the object.

e.g. The suffering was sweet!

Zeugma [ˈzjuːɡmə]consists in combining unequal semantically heterogeneous or even incompatible words or phrases.

It is used:

- to produce humorous effect;

- to make the two meanings more conspicuous.

e.g. She lost her bag and mind.

Metaphor [ˈmetəfɔː(r)] is transference of names based on similarity between two objects.

It may serve:

- as an image-creative device;

- to characterize or describe objects or people;

- to impart some expressive or emotive force to utterance.

e.g. floods of tears потоки слез

a storm of indignation шторм негодования

a shadow of a smile тень улыбки

pancake/ball → the sun

Metonymy [meˈtɒnəmi]is based on contiguity of objects or phenomena having common grounds of existence in reality.

It is used:

- to build up imagery;

- to show a property or an essential quality of the concept;

- to impart any special force to linguistic expression.

The hall applauded. Зал приветствовал (под "залом" подразумевается не помещение, а зрители, находящиеся в зале).

e.g. The bucket has spilled.

Synecdoche [sɪnˈekdəki] is a kind of metonymy. This term denotes using the name of part to denote the whole or vice versa.

It is used:

- to show a property or an essential quality of the concept;

- to impart any special force to linguistic expression.

e.g. The buyer chooses the qualitative products.

Antonomasia [ˌantənəˈmeɪzɪə] is the use of a common name as a proper name and vice versa.

It may serve:

- to characterize the bearer of the name;

- to create some humorous effect.

e.g. The Iron Lady

Casanova

Mr. All-Know

Inversion [ɪnˈvɜː(r)ʃ(ə)n]consists in unusual arrangement of words for the purpose of making one of them more emphatic.

e.g. Rude am I in my speech.

Repetition [ˌrepəˈtɪʃ(ə)n]is recurrence of the same element (word or phrase) within the sentence.

It is used:

- for emphasis or for a special affect (e.g. intensifying the duration of the process);

- to attract the reader’s attention to the key-word of the utterance;

-to give rhythm to the utterance.

e.g. Stop! Don't tell me! I don't want to hear this! I don't want to hear what you've come for. Anadiplosis [ˌænədəˈpləʊsɪs] is the repetition of the final unit of one utterance at the beginning of the next utterance.

It is used:

- to attract the reader’s attention to the key-word of the utterance;

- to give rhythm to the utterance.

e.g. I was climbing the tower and the stairs were trembling. And the stairs were trembling under my feet.

Epiphora [ɪˈpɪf(ə)rə]is the repetition of the same unit at the end of two or more successive clauses or sentences.

It is used:

- to attract the reader’s attention to the key-word of the utterance;

- to give rhythm to the utterance.

e.g. Strength is given to me by fate. Luck is given to me by fate. And failures are given by fate. Everything in this world is given by fate. Силы даны мне судьбой.

Anaphora [əˈnaf(ə)rə]implies identity of the several initial elements in some successive sentences.

It is used:

- to attract the reader’s attention to the key-word of the utterance;

- to give rhythm to the utterance.

e.g. What the hammer?

What the chain?

In what furnace was thy brain?

What the anvil?

What dread grasp

Dare its deadly terrors clasp?

("The Tiger" by William Blake)

Polysyndeton [ˌpɒli:ˈsɪndɪtɒn] is deliberate repetition of connectives before each component part, when it is generally not expected.

It serves:

- to introduce strong rhythmic effect;

- to strengthen the idea of equal logical importance of connected;

- components, to emphasize the simultaneity of actions or close connection of properties enumerated, or to promote a high flown tonality of narrative.

e.g. I will either go to the party or study up or watch TV or sleep.

Asyndeton [æ’sinditən]is deliberate omission of conjunctions.

It is used:

- to impart dynamic force to the text;

- to produce strong rhythmic impact.

e.g. The day, water, sun, moon, night – I do not have to purchase these things with money.

Antithesis [ænˈtɪθəsɪs]/contraposition [kɒntrəpəˈzɪʃ(ə)n] consists in putting together two ideas that are quite opposite.

It may be used:

- to create certain rhythmic effect;

- to compare two objects or to set a contrast between them;

- to connect words, clauses or sentences and to unite their senses;

- to disconnect words and disunite their senses.

e.g. Youth is lovely, age is lonely, youth is fiery, age is frosty.

Ellipsis [ɪˈlɪpsɪs] means the omission of one or both principle parts of a sentence.

It is used:

- to reproduce the direct speech of characters;

- to impart brevity, a quick tempo and emotional tension to the narrative;

- as a means of dynamic description.

e.g. Some people go to priests; others to poetry; I to my friends.

Aposiopesis [ˌapə(ʊ)ˌsʌɪəˈpiːsɪs] denotes intentional break in the narrative.

It is used to convey:

- the emotional state of the speaker depriving him of the ability to express himself in terms of language;

- unwillingness to proceed;

- the speaker’s uncertainty as to what should be said;

- hint, warning, promise.

e.g. If only could I ... But now is not the time to tell it.

Personification [pәˌsᴐnifi’kei∫(ә)n]is a kind of metaphor. It is representation of inanimate objects or abstract ideas as leaving beings. The abstract ideas are often capitalized and can be substituted by the pronouns “he” or “she”

It is used:

- as an image-creating device;

- to characterize or describe objects or people;

- to impart some expressive or emotive force to the utterance.

e.g. When sorrows come, they come, they come not single spies but in battalions.

Climax (Gradation) [‘klaimæks]denotes such an arrangement of notions, expressed by words, word combinations or sentences in which what precedes is less significant than what follows.

It is used:

- to intensify the logical importance or emotional (nervous) strain.

- to show the increase in the volume, quantity, size, etc.

e.g. I am not in recession. I’m going fine. I’m well-off. I’m almost rich.

Anticlimax [,ænti’klaimæks]consists in adding one weaker element to one or several strong ones, mentioned before.

It is used:

- to produce “defeated expectancy” effect;

- to attract the reader’s attention;

- to produce humorous or satirical effect;

- to decline from a noble (pompous), impressive tone to a less exalted one.

e.g. Not all are annoying. Some are dead.

Parallelism [‘pærəleliz(ə)m]consists in similarity of the syntactical structure of successive phrases, clauses or sentences. Parallelism may be complete, which consists in repetition of identical syntactical structures.

It is used:

- to convey the idea of semantic equality of the sentence parts;

- to produce some emotive impact on the reader;

- to emphasize the diversity or contrast of ideas (in combination with antithesis);

- to produce some rhythmic effect.

e.g. Loneliness is the poverty of self; solitude is the richness of self.

Rhetoric/rhetorical questions [ˈretərɪk/rɪˈtɒrɪk(ə)l ˈkwestʃ(ə)nz] implies asking question not to gain information, but to assert more emphatically the obvious answer to what is asked. No answer is expected by the speaker.

It is used:

- to express some additional shade of meaning (doubt, assertion, suggestion);

- to enhance the emotional charge of the utterance.

e.g. Have you just said something?

Parenthesis [pə’rənθəsis]is a qualifying explanatory word or phrase, which interrupts a syntactic construction without effecting it.

It is used:

- to create the second plan of the background to the narrative;

- to make some part of a sentence more conspicuous.

e.g. His mouth was set grimly, and a nerve was twitching in his jaw – he had every right to be furious – but in his eyes all I could see was a sort of dreamy sadness.

Pun [pʌn] is play of words based on polysemy or homonymy. In other words, pun is based on the interplay of word or word combination that sound the same.

Pun is used:

- to produce humorous effect;

- to make the two meanings more conspicuous or set a contrast between them.

e.g. What is the difference between a schoolmaster and an engine-driver? (One trains the mind and the other minds the train.)

1.3 SOME GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS TO TEXT ANALYSIS

1) Introduction, information about the author. (Some data about the writer's biography, creative activities and outlook are required.) If possible the student should say a few words about the novel from which the excerpt is taken.

2) The summary of the extract. It must be short (1/4 of the original text) and logical.

3) The structure of the text. If possible exposition, complications, climax and denouement should be identified. The text must be as well subdivided into logically complete parts. The student should say whether the text is the first or the third person narration, what forms of subject matter presentation are predominant in the text (the author's narration, description, dialogue, psychological portraiture of the characters) and in what parts.

4) The general atmosphere of the text. (It may be dry, unemotional, emotional, vivid, bright, tense, dramatic, pathetic, tragic, humorous, ironical, satirical, sarcastic, etc.) It may change throughout the text. These changes are to be accounted for. Also examples from the text should be given to show how the author creates this or that kind of atmosphere, what words and stylistic devices help him to do it.

5) The characters of the extract, whether they are described directly (i.e. the author himself names their features) or indirectly (i.e. through their actions, speech, thoughts, appearance), what kind of people they are judging by the text, what kind of relations can be, observed between them. The author's attitude to the characters, if it is expressed clearly enough or if it is not expressed. The students are obliged to present their own attitude to the characters and to ground it substantially. Also examples from the text are required to prove the ideas.

6) The general characteristics of the style of the extract. Vocabulary and syntax employed by the author. Can any instances of bookish and colloquial vocabulary be found? Why does the author use it? What kinds of sentences predominate in different parts of the text? Does the author use stylistic devices amply or sparingly? Is his style in general vivid, clear and emotional or matter-of-fact and constrained?

7) The main idea (message) of the text. i.e. what the author wanted to tell the reader by this extract, the underlying thoughts and ideas of the author.

8) The student's evaluation of the text under analysis. It may logically continue the previous item of the plan. The student must express his attitude to the message of the text and other ideas conveyed by the author and state whether these ideas are important and urgent. Stylistic and compositional peculiarities of the text are also to be dwelt upon here. (Комаров Е. В. Методические рекомендации по аналитическому чтению для студентов III - IV курсов отделения "История и английский язык").