Form of words (Morphology)

In this part, the commonalities are ‘Non-standard word formations’, ‘Analytic comparative’ and ‘Non-standard plural forms/Countability’. The speakers produce nonstandard forms in word formation (e.g. boringdom, discriminization), the analytic comparative (e.g. more narrow, more cheap, more clear) and plural forms (e.g. how many hydrogen).

Grammar (Syntax)

In this part, the commonalities are dealt with at phrase and clause levels.

At the phrase level, starting with the noun phrase (NP), the features found comprise ‘Not marking the plural on the noun’, ‘Problematic usage of articles’, and ‘Double comparatives/ superlatives’. One of the most interesting features perhaps is ‘Not marking of the plural on the noun’, considering the importance and frequency of quantity bundles in engineering (Biber, 2006). The speakers seem to indicate the plural meaning merely by numbers or by adverbs or determiners before the noun but leave the noun itself without a declension. Some examples of this are given below as in (1-3) and (4)-(6):

(1) They have a range from 50 to 500 meter.

(2) Typically you want to have five kilogram of oxygen.

(3) For example, you take two piece of glasand

(4) In many many caseyou can gasify it.

(5) There are some difference….

(6) ..several conclusion…

When it comes to article usage, there are cases where the article is superfluous or incorrect, as in (7)-(9):

(7) You will have aefficiency curve….

(8) If you go to theBelgium, all the highways are lit.

(9) You can use it in thedifferent ways.

There are cases where the article is missing, exemplified in (10)-(12):

(10) From those figures, you can have▼ idea what reasonable speed….

(11) You can add timing interphase for ▼ memory system.

(12) Who has paid for the infrastructure? That’s always▼ interesting question.

The last group of features at the noun phrase level, ‘double comparatives/superlatives’, simply include examples such as much more safer, much more wider, more bigger, the most cheapest available biowaste etc.

The main cases of non-standard usage at the verb phrase level (VP) are ‘Subject-verb disagreement’, ‘Tense and aspect issues’ and ‘Problematic usage of passive voice’. To start with, there are many cases of subject-verb disagreement in the material, a feature often found in L2 speech. The material in the present study has examples of this (13-15):

(13) I will talk about how a turbine operatein the system.

(14) However, the blades wasnot that good developed.

(15) There is a further method which aresensitive to porosity in rocks.

The strongest feature when it comes to tense and aspect issues is the very frequent use of the verb-ing (the progressive form), again a common feature in ELF (Ranta, 2006). This is unlike native speaker academic discourse, for which the “simple aspect is overwhelmingly the preferred option” (Biber, 2006). The speakers in the present context often make sentences to refer to scientific or technical phenomena that are always true or valid, and despite this, they use verb-ing instead of the simple form, as in (16)-(18):

(16) A Francis turbine is usingthe whole turbine equation. (instead of uses)

(17) Typically the energy of the sun is emitting… (instead of emits)

(18) And many many parameters isaffecting this one. (instead of affect)

The third group here deals with deviant passive voice. Although used much more frequently in engineering discourse than in other university registers, passive voice is rare in spoken university registers (Biber, 2006). Correspondingly, there are few occurrences of deviant passive voice in the present material as in (19-21):

(19) And the plates get heat upvery quickly.

(20) They are not directly affectby these concentrations.

(21) It can be happenedthat sometimes…

At the clause level, there are three interesting cases of non-standard usage, namely ‘Nonstandard question formulation’, ‘Pre- and post- dislocations’ and ‘Negation’.

To start with, there are numerous cases of non-standard question formulation in the corpus as shown in (22)-(26), observed both in Wh- and Yes/No questions:

(22) So what kind of plant you have to consider?

(23) Why is not good to combust directly?

(24) Why it is black?

(25) Why the function looks like that?

(26) Anybody can define the renewability?

So speakers in ELF contexts seem to disregard question word order and ask questions mainly by using interrogative pronouns e.g. what, why in Wh- questions and follow the affirmative sentence word order in Yes/No questions. This type of usage is found mainly in the dialogic material in the present study. It is highly likely that the speech event type is the main factor behind this: in group-work, speakers often raise questions to complete the task whereas in lectures, it is much less frequent that the lecturer directs questions to the floor. This type of deviance differs from all others discussed here since it is the only one that has disturbed communication and led to repetition and rephrasing in some cases.

The next typical feature of ELF usage is a special case of deviance from standard written English which is shared by native usage: Pre- and post-dislocations. They occur frequently in academic speech and are used to topicalize or highlight information both by native and non-native speakers. There are many examples of it in the material, especially in the lectures as in (27)-(29):

(27) The pores that’s wherewe have the large surface area.

(28) And the nano-particles theyare in the surface area.

(29) The supercapacitorsI don’t know much about them.

In the present material, post-dislocations make up about 15 % of the monologic examples and 13 % of the material in total. Some examples of post-dislocations are given in (30)-(32):

(30) Thiscould be 80 per cent the margin efficiency.

(31) Well itis not so emission-free hydropower.

(32) You have very big parts of it flatland.

Another quite interesting area is negation. Failure to raise negation from the subordinate clause to the main clause seems to be common especially in the dialogic material, i.e. student group-work, with some examples also in the monologic material (33)-(35):

(33) It is a notvery good generator.

(34) It has notalways a low complexity.

(35) This point is supposed to notmove.