TOPIC 2. GREAT DISCOVERIES

Text 1.

 

1. Прочитайте слова по транскрипции:

peruvians |pəˈrʊvɪənz|, cloth |klɒθ|, Sulphur |ˈsəlfər|, vulcanize |ˈvʌlkənʌɪz|.

 

2. Обратите внимание на перевод следующих слов и словосочетаний:

rubber - резина, каучук;

Peruvian – перуанец;

rubber tree - каучуковое дерево;

liquid – жидкость;

waxlike – восковидный;

nitric acid - азотная кислота;

sulphur – сера.

 

3. Прочитайте текст и переведите при помощи словаря незнакомые слова и словосочетания.

 

4. Прочитайте и переведите весь текст:

 

                                THE DEVELOPMENT OF RUBBER

 Here is the story of rubber. From the earliest time it was common knowledge to the Peruvians that when a cut was made in the outside skin of a rubber tree, a white liquid like milk came out, and that from this a sticky mass rubber might be made. This rubber is soft and waxlike when warm, so that it is possible to give it any form. The Peruvians made the discovery that it was very good for keeping out the wet.

 Then in the early part of the eighteenth century, the Americans made use of it for the first time. First they made overshoes to keep their feet dry. Then came a certain Mr. Mackintosh, who made coats of cloth covered with natural rubber. From that day to this our raincoats are still named after him.

   But these first rubber overshoes and raincoats were all soft and sticky in summer, and hard and unelastic in the winter when it was cold. But the rubber we have today is not sticky, but soft and elastic, though very strong even in the warmest summer and the coldest winter. There would be no automobiles such as we have today without it. A lot of attempts to make rubber hard and strong came to nothing. First came the discovery that nitric acid made the rubber much better. Then came the idea that rubber could be made hard and strong if mixed with sulphur and put in the sun. Now it is common knowledge that the way to make rubber hard and strong - to “ vulcanize” it, as we say is by heating it with Sulphur.

 

5.Ответьте на вопросы:

1. Who discovered rubber? 2. Do you know where rubber-trees grow? 3. What were the first things made of rubber? 4. How do we often call a raincoat? 5. What were the properties of rubber before its vulcanization? 6. How can rubber be made hard and strong?

 

Text 2.

 

1.Прочитайте слова по транскрипции:

misconceptions |ˌmɪskənˈsepʃənz|, fossilized |ˈfɒs(ə)lʌɪzd|, archeologist |ˌɑːkiˈɒlədʒɪst|, differentiation |ˌdɪfərɛnʃɪˈeɪʃn|, industrialist |ɪnˈdʌstrɪəlɪst|.

 

2.Обратите внимание на перевод следующих слов и словосочетаний:

Benjamin Franklin - Бе́нджамин Фра́нклин (американский изобретатель);

William Gilbert - Уи́льям Ги́льберт (английский физик);

Alessandro Volta - Алесса́ндро Во́льта (итальянский физик, химик);

Joseph Swan - Джозеф Уилсон Суон (английский химик и физик);

George Westinghouse - Джордж Вестингауз (американский промышленник);

misconception - неправильное представление, недоразумение;

abound - изобиловать, быть в большом количестве;

amber – янтарь;

copper – медь;

electrostatic generator - электростатический генератор;

negative current - отрицательный ток;

positive currents - положительный ток;

conductor - проводник;

insulator - изолятор;

investigation - исследование;

electric spark - искровой разряд; электрическая искра;

voltaic pile - вольтов столб;

positively-charged - положительно заряжённый;

negatively-charged - отрицательно заряжённый;

voltage - вольтаж, электрическое напряжение;

incandescent filament - нить лампы накаливания;

 light bulb - лампа накаливания;

alternating current - переменный ток;

polyphase – многофазный:

distribution system - распределительная сеть.

 

3. Прочитайте текст и переведите при помощи словаря незнакомые слова и словосочетания.

 

4.Прочитайте и переведите весь текст:

 

WHO DISCOVERED ELECTRICITY?

Electricity is a form of energy and it occurs in nature, so it was not “invented.” As to who discovered it, many misconceptions abound. Some give credit to Benjamin Franklin for discovering electricity, but his experiments only helped establish the connection between lightning and electricity, nothing more. The truth about the discovery of electricity is a bit more complex than a man flying his kite. It actually goes back more than two thousand years.

In about 600 BC, the Ancient Greeks discovered that rubbing fur on amber (fossilized tree resin) caused an attraction between the two – and so what the Greeks discovered was actually static electricity. Additionally, researchers and archeologists in the 1930’s discovered pots with sheets of copper inside that they believe may have been ancient batteries meant to produce light at ancient Roman sites. Similar devices were found in archeological digs near Baghdad meaning ancient Persians may have also used an early form of batteries. But by the 17th century, many electricity-related discoveries had been made, such as the invention of an early electrostatic generator, the differentiation between positive and negative currents, and the classification of materials as conductors or insulators.

In the year 1600, English physician William Gilbert used the Latin word “electricus” to describe the force that certain substances exert when rubbed against each other. A few years later another English scientist, Thomas Browne, wrote several books and he used the word “electricity” to describe his investigations based on Gilbert’s work. In 1752, Ben Franklin conducted his experiment with a kite, a key, and a storm. This simply proved that lightning and tiny electric sparks were the same thing.

Italian physicist Alessandro Volta discovered that particular chemical reactions could produce electricity, and in 1800 he constructed the voltaic pile (an early electric battery) that produced a steady electric current, and so he was the first person to create a steady flow of electrical charge. Volta also created the first transmission of electricity by linking positively-charged and negatively-charged connectors and driving an electrical charge, or voltage, through them. In 1831 electricity became viable for use in technology when Michael Faraday created the electric dynamo (a crude power generator), which solved the problem of generating electric current in an ongoing and practical way. Faraday’s rather crude invention used a magnet that was moved inside a coil of copper wire, creating a tiny electric current that flowed through the wire. This opened the door to American Thomas Edison and British scientist Joseph Swan who each invented the incandescent filament light bulb in their respective countries in about 1878. Previously, light bulbs had been invented by others, but the incandescent bulb was the first practical bulb that would light for hours on end. Swan and Edison later set up a joint company to produce the first practical filament lamp, and Edison used his direct-current system (DC) to provide power to illuminate the first New York electric street lamps in September 1882.

Later in the 1800’s and early 1900’s Serbian American engineer, inventor, and all around electrical wizard Nikola Tesla became an important contributor to the birth of commercial electricity. He worked with Edison and later had many revolutionary developments in electromagnetism, and had competing patents with Marconi for the invention of radio. He is well known for his work with alternating current (AC), AC motors, and the polyphase distribution system.

Later, American inventor and industrialist George Westinghouse purchased and developed Tesla’s patented motor for generating alternating current, and the work of Westinghouse, Tesla and others gradually convinced American society that the future of electricity lay with AC rather than DC.

Others who worked to bring the use of electricity to where it is today include Scottish inventor James Watt, Andre Ampere, a French mathematician, and German mathematician and physicist George Ohm.

And so, it was not just one person who discovered electricity. While the concept of electricity was known for thousands of years, when it came time to develop it commercially and scientifically, there were several great minds working on the problem at the same time.

 

Text 3.

 

1.Прочитайте слова по транскрипции:

microbiology |ˌmʌɪkrə(ʊ)bʌɪˈɒlədʒi|, microorganisms |ˌmaɪkrəʊ ˈɔːɡəˌnɪzəmz|, pasteurization |ˌpɑːstʃəraɪˈzeɪʃən|, vaccination |ˌvæksɪˈneɪʃən|,cholera |ˈkɒlərə|, anthrax |ˈanθraks|, vaccine |ˈvaksiːn|.

 

2.Обратите внимание на перевод следующих слов и словосочетаний:

Louis Pasteur - Луи́ Пасте́р (французский микробиолог и химик);

germ theory - микробная теория;

pasteurization – пастеризация;

sterilization - стерилизация, обеззараживание;

Edward Jenner - Эдвард Дженнер (английский врач);

smallpox – оспа;

cholera – холера;

anthrax - сибирская язва;

rabies - бешенство, водобоязнь.

 

3. Прочитайте текст и переведите при помощи словаря незнакомые слова и словосочетания.

 

4.Прочитайте и переведите весь текст:

 

PASTEURIZATION

Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) began his scientific career as a chemist, but it is because of his applications of germ theory to the prevention of disease that he became known as 'The Father of Microbiology'. Pasteur did not create germ theory, but he proved it to be correct. Once he had achieved this, he set about finding ways to prevent germs, the

microorganisms present in the air, from infecting food and people.

   He completed his famous experiment proving that microorganisms were present in the air while working for a wine company. He was trying to discover why wine sometimes went bad as it was being made. Once he had found the cause - microorganisms - he began to develop the process which carries his name - pasteurization. It was perfectly possible to kill all the microorganisms in food by boiling it, a process known as sterilization, but this damaged the taste and the quality of the food. Pasteur's process killed not all, but most, of the microorganisms, with the result that the food needed to be kept cool and eaten or drunk within a limited time. Most importantly, the quality of the food was not harmed by the process. Much of the food we eat today is pasteurized.

  His next achievement was to build on the discover of the British scientist Edward Jenner. Many years earlier, Jenner had discovered a way of giving people resistance to the deadly disease smallpox, by injecting them with a similar disease that was found

among cows. The process became known as vaccination. Pasteur applied germ theory to his work and looked at samples of blood taken from healthy and infected animals. He grew bacteria in his laboratory and used it to infect animals. By chance, some of these germs failed to grow well in his laboratory; these weak germs were then used to

infect some chickens. Although the chickens suffered at first, they made a complete recovery and could not be infected again. In this way, he discovered a way of increasing resistance to disease. Pasteur developed vaccines for many serious diseases including cholera and anthrax. At that time, these illnesses were certain death for anyone who caught them.

  Pasteur's discoveries revolutionised work on infectious diseases. Pasteur's vaccines were different from Jenner's in one important way. Jenner found a weak form of smallpox and transferred it to humans. Pasteur weakened the disease in a laboratory and immunised people with that weakened form. His success allowed a colleague to

develop the first vaccine for rabies, which Pasteur used to save the life of a nine-year-old boy. By this act, Pasteur's position as a hero was assured.

 Thanks to the work of Pasteur, we now live longer, our food stays fresh longer and we are less likely to die of disease. Indeed, smallpox is no longer found anywhere in the world, due to a huge vaccination programme carried out in the 20^th century. This could never have happened without the scientific achievements of The Father of Microbiology.

 

5.Ответьте на вопросы:

1 Pasteur used his work on pasteurisation to:

A move his specialisation to microbiology.

В find ways to protect food and people from infection.

С make a theory of germs.

D prevent microorganisms being in the air.

2 Pasteurisation

A kills only dangerous microorganisms.

В works for a limited time.

С doesn't work with wine.

D kills all the microorganisms.

3 Pasteur's vaccinated animals

A recovered from the disease.

В died from the disease.

С didn't suffer from the disease.

D didn't catch the disease.

4 Pasteur became a hero when

A he invented pasteurisation.

В a vaccine saved a boy's life.

С he discovered vaccines.

D a colleague developed a rabies vaccine.

5 Because of Pasteur,

A we eat less tasty food.

В there are no germs anymore.

Сmany serious diseases are rare.

D we don't need to keep food cool.

 

Text 4.

 

1.Прочитайте слова по транскрипции:

phenomena |fəˈnɒmɪnə|, aeroplane |ˈɛːrəpleɪn|, equation |ɪˈkweɪʒ(ə)n|.

 

2.Обратите внимание на перевод следующих слов и словосочетаний:

Galileo - Галиле́о Галиле́й (итальянский физик, механик, астроном, философ);

Einstein - Альбе́рт Эйнште́йн (физик-теоретик);

Law of Universal Gravitation - закон всемирного тяготения;

Special Theory of Relativity - специальная теория относительности;

General Theory of Relativity - общая теория относительности;

matter - материя, масса;

claim – утверждение;

relative - относительный, сравнительный;

multi-dimensional – многомерный;

obstacles – препятствия;

furthermore - более того, кроме того;

geometrical calculations - геометрический расчёт;

solar eclipse - солнечное затмение;

equation – уравнение.

 

3. Прочитайте текст и переведите при помощи словаря незнакомые слова и словосочетания.

 

4.Прочитайте и переведите весь текст:

 

THE GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY

Isaac Newton's discovery of the Law of Universal Gravitation would seem to have definitively answered the question of planetary movement. And yet, it became apparent to scientists that a number of phenomena which they observed did not agree with those they expected to see based on Newton's predictions.

One of the differences was the orbit of the planet Mercury, which did not quite match the orbit predicted by Newton's theory. Another problem resulted from James Clerk Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism (about 1870), which indicated that space was filled with matter that moved and was not empty and motionless, as Newton had

believed. Finally, there was a problem with Newton's claim that light travelled at a constant speed, whether the observer was moving toward or away from it or not.

These questions captured the interest of a brilliant young physics student, Albert Einstein. Einstein's first attempt to solve the problem was his 1905 paper on The Special Theory of Relativity, a concept which had been noted by Galileo in 1632. In this work. Einstein found that time and space are relative, not constant. This means that time and space are different depending on where the observer is. This was proved by an experiment involving two clocks: one was put on an aeroplane which travelled

around the world and the other remained at the starting point on the ground. When the first one returned, it was running slower than the one which had been left behind, exactly as Einstein had predicted.

Einstein continued to expand on this theory, and in 1916 presented a paper on a new theory, The General Theory of Relativity, which took into account the effect of gravitation on space and time. It involved the notion of space time, a multi-dimensional phenomenon which is constantly moving and bending as it meets obstacles in its path. Everything in the universe is part of this space time and is carried along with it. Furthermore, gravity is not a force which moves things, but rather it is an element which illustrates curved space and time.

Einstein's theory was based on geometrical calculations and principles and had to be proved by scientific testing in the natural world, which many scientists were eager to do. In 1919, during a solar eclipse, a British team working in two different locations measured the light of several stars. They found that the light from these stars was actually bent, just as Einstein's theory had predicted. Needless to say, Einstein immediately became internationally famous. Scientists continued to apply Einstein's equations to other natural phenomena, all with positive results.

 

4. Решите, являются ли эти утверждения верными (true or false?):

1) The orbit of the planet Mercury led scientists to question Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation.

2) Maxwell agreed with Newton that space was empty and motionless.

3) Einstein was the first scientist to talk about the notion of relativity.

4) According to Einstein, gravity is not a force which moves matter.

5) Einstein's theories were never proved by scientific testing.

 

TOPIC 3. MATHEMATICS

Text 1

 

1. Обратите внимание на перевод следующих слов и словосочетаний:

addition - сложение;

sum - сумма;

total of - всего;

increased by - увеличенный на;

subtraction - вычитание;

difference of - разность;

decreased by - уменьшенный на;

less than - отнять;

multiplication - умножение;

product - произведение ;

division - деление;

quotient - результат деления;

fraction of a number - дробь числа;

exponentiation - возведение в степень;

fourth power of - четвёртая степень;

square of – вторая степень (квадрат);

cube of - третья степень (куб);

radical expression - подкоренное выражение;

square root of - квадратный корень;

additive inverse - противоположный элемент, обратная величина;

opposite of - противоположного знака (обратного);

 

MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSIONS

In algebra, letters are used to express the general properties of numbers. Representing one number by the letter a and another by the letter b we can write the equality a x b = b x a or, more shortly, ab=ba. If no other sign is indicated, the multiplication sign is understood between any two letters written side by side.

  To represent numbers letters of the Latin alphabet are generally used.

	Examples:	Mathematical phrases (for examples)
addition		The sum of two and a number or The total of two and a number or Two increased by a number
subtraction		The difference of twelve and five or Twelve decreased by five or Twelve less five or Five less than twelve
multiplication		The product of three and seven or Three times seven *Twice a number
division		The quotient of a number and fifteen
fraction of a number		One-fourth of a number
Additive inverse		Opposite of a number
exponentiation		The fourth power of ten *The square of three *The cube of a number
radical expression		The square root of four
multiplicative inverse		The multiplicative inverse of a number or The reciprocal of a number

 

 

2.Назовите арифметические знаки:

+ ; : ; —; х ; =

 

3.Прочтите числительные:

5, 15, 51, 150, 523, 3, 13-й, 1-й

 

4. Переведите на английский язык:

Сложение, сложить, слагаемые, сумма; вычитание, вычесть, разность;

умножение, умножить, множитель, произведение; деление,делить, частное

5. Прочтите цифровые выражения:

28 : 4 = 7 8 1 :9 = 9

                                             7 x 7 = 49  9 + 9 = 1 8

6 x 9 =54 18 - 7 = 1 1

 

Text 2.

 

1.Обратите внимание на перевод следующих слов и словосочетаний:

belonging - собственность;

taxation - сумма налога;

tally - единица счёта;

Incas - империя инков (крупнейшее по площади и численности населения индейское раннеклассовое государство в Южной Америке в XI—XVI веках).

 

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MATHEMATICS

   The English word mathematics tells us something about the influence the Ancient Greeks had on our knowledge. The word comes from the Greek for science, learning and knowledge. It is usually shortened to maths in British English and to math in the USA.

   Mathematics developed from a series of ideas, each new idea building on earlier ones. Each new idea became more complex as mathematicians tried to explain how things in the world relate to one another. The first idea to have developed was certainly that of number. People needed to count their belongings. As society developed, numbers became more and more important for business dealings and taxation and it became especially important to be able to record numbers. A wide variety of systems for recording numbers developed in different parts of the world. One example is the tallies that were used by the Incas in South America. They used pieces of string of different lengths and by tying knots in different places along the string, they were able to keep tax records and business accounts throughout their land.

 With writing, different ways of recording numbers developed in different countries, too. Roman numerals are a well-known example. In this system I is one and X is ten, so IX is one before ten, that is nine, and XI is eleven. It was not until the 16th century that the system of mathematical notation that we use today finally developed. It is a system that uses Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3 and so on) with a set of symbols + (plus), - (minus), = (equals) for example, along with letters, many of which are taken from the Greek alphabet. It is a system which is used by all mathematicians all over the world. In fact, it has been said that mathematics is one of only two genuinely international languages; the other one is music.

    Whether or not mathematics is a science is still a matter of opinion in the mathematical community. Some say no, it is not because it does not pass the test of being a pure science. We know that one plus one is two because that is how we count. No one can set up an experiment to prove that one plus one is two without counting. Therefore, because it cannot be proved by experiment, mathematics is not a science. Others say yes, it is, because science is the search for knowledge and that is what mathematics does.

  Therefore, mathematics is a science. Whatever your point of view, there is no doubt that mathematics is applied to all sciences. Many of the most important developments in fields such as physics or engineering have led to further developments in mathematics. The argument over whether mathematics is a science or not appears to be unimportant when you realise that it is impossible to separate mathematics from science or science from mathematics. Many universities recognise this. In many places of learning there are divisions of study, often called Mathematics and Science. The unbreakable connection between mathematics and all other sciences is recognized by the very way in which we study them.

 

4. Решите, являются ли данные утверждения верными (true or false?):

1) Mathematics developed in complexity due to a need to understand the relationships between things.

2) The Incas were the first to come up with a number system.

3) Mathematics is an international language because it uses Arabic numerals.

4) Opinions are divided over whether mathematics is truly scientific.

5) The development of mathematics is dependent on other sciences.

 

Text 3

 

1. Прочитайте слова по транскрипции:

algebra |ˈaldʒɪbrə|, Babylonian |ˌbabɪˈləʊnɪən|, algebraical |ˌældʒɪˈbreɪkəl|, equation |ɪˈkweɪʒ(ə)n| 

 

2.Обратите внимание на перевод следующих слов и словосочетаний:

Babylonian - вавилонянин (древнее население Южной Месопотамии);

arithmetical laws - арифметический закон;

denote - обозначать;

 

3.Прочитайте текст и переведите при помощи словаря незнакомые слова и словосочетания.

 

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ALGEBRA

Algebra originated in the Middle East. Earlier than 1000 BG, the Babylonians developed an arithmetical system for solving problems that could be written algebraically. This was in advance of other systems, notably that of the Ancient Egyptians, who were able to solve the same problems, but did so by using geometry. The word algebra comes from Arabic and translates into English as reunion. It describes a system of mathematics which performs calculations by firstly rewriting, that is, transposing them, and then reducing them to their simplest form.

Algebra is the branch of mathematics which studies the structure of things, the relationship between things and quantity. It looks different from arithmetic when it is written. Arithmetic uses numbers and the four operators (plus, minus, multiply and divide). Algebra uses symbols, usually letters, and the operators. Actually, it is not very different from arithmetic: what can be done in algebra can be done in arithmetic. There are good mathematical reasons, however, why algebra is used instead of arithmetic.

Firstly, by not using numbers, mathematicians are able to set out arithmetical laws. In this way they are able to understand the system of numbers more clearly. Secondly, by using algebra, mathematicians are able to perform calculations where unknown quantities are involved. This unknown is usually represented by x. Solutions can then be applied not just to the immediate problem, but to all problems of the same nature by the use of a formula. A common algebraic problem to solve in school exams would be, for example: find x where 3x + 8 = 14. A third reason for the use of algebra rather than arithmetic is that it allows calculations which involve change in the relationship between what goes into the problem and what comes out of it, that is, between input and output. It is an algebraic formula which allows a business to calculate its potential profit (or loss) over any period of time.

It is possible to classify algebra by dividing it into four areas. Firstly, there is elementary algebra in which symbols (such as x and y, or a and b) are used to denote numbers. In this area, the rules that control the mathematical expressions and equations using these symbols are studied. Then, there is abstract or modern algebra in which mathematical systems consisting of a set of elements and several rules (axioms) for the interaction of the elements and the operations are defined and researched. Thirdly, there is linear algebra (linear equations) in which linear transformations and vector spaces, including matrices, are studied. Finally, there is universal algebra in which the ideas common to all algebraic structures are studied.

Like all branches of mathematics, algebra has developed because we need it to solve our problems. By avoiding the use of numbers we are able to generalise both the problem and the solution.

 

5. Решите, являются ли данные утверждения верными (true or false?):

1) Algebra is a mathematical system which rewrites a problem making it as simple as possible.

2) Written down, algebra differs to arithmetic in the operators it uses.

3) Algebra has some advantages to offer the mathematician.

4) Algebraic formulae are primarily of use in businesses.

5) Universal algebra combines all the structures from the other three areas.

 

TOPIC 4. DRAWINGS

 

Text1

 

1.Обратите внимание на перевод следующих слов и словосочетаний:

drawing - чертеж;

computer-aided design - компьютерный дизайн;

scale - масштаб;

scale drawing - чертёж, выполненный в масштабе;

general arrangement drawing - чертеж общего вида;

detail drawing - детальный чертёж;

electrical circuit - электрическая цепь;

 

2.Прочитайте текст и переведите при помощи словаря незнакомые слова и словосочетания.

 

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DRAWING TYPES AND SCALES

In engineering, most design information is shown on drawings. Today, drawings are generally not drawn by hand. They are produced on computer, using CAD (computer-aided design) systems.

A key factor on a drawing is the scale - that is, the size of items on the drawing in relation to their real size. When all the items on a drawing are shown relative to their real size, the drawing is drawn to scale, and can be called a scale drawing. An example of a scale is 1:10 (one to ten). At 1:10, an object with a length of 100 mm in real life would measure 10 mm on the drawing.

 Most engineering designs consist of a set of drawings (a number of related drawings):

• General arrangement (GA) drawings show whole devices or structures, using a small scale. This means objects on the drawing are small, relative to their real size (for example, a 1:100 drawing of an entire building).

• Detail drawings show parts in detail, using a large scale, such as 1:5 or 1:2. Small parts are sometimes shown in a detail as actual size (1:1), or can be enlarged to bigger than actual size (for example, 2:1).

For electrical circuits, and pipe and duct networks, it is helpful to show designs in a simplified form. In this case, schematic drawings (often referred to as schematics) are used. An everyday example is the map of a train network.

Notes: When written, drawing is often abbreviated to dwg.

CAD is pronounced as a word: /kred/.

 

4. Дополните следующие предложения:

1) Enlarged drawings show components larger than their ....................................

2) For engineering drawings, 1:5 is a commonly used ................................ .

3) Whole machines or structures are shown on ....................................... drawings.

4) Electrical drawings don't usually show sizes. They're shown as ..................... .

5) A .................... of drawings for a large project can consist of hundreds of pages.

6) Most drawings are produced on computers, using ................................ software.

 

Text 2

 

1.Обратите внимание на перевод следующих слов и словосочетаний:

technical requirements - технические требования; техническое задание;

worst - case scenario - наихудший случай;

maximum loads - предельная нагрузка;

 

2.Прочитайте текст и переведите при помощи словаря незнакомые слова и словосочетания.

 

3.Прочитайте и переведите весь текст:

 

DESIGN CALCULATIONS

 Design information is shown on drawings, and written in specifications - documents which describe the materials, sizes and technical requirements of components. In order to specify this detailed information, an engineer must evaluate- that is, identify and calculate- the loads (forces) that key components will have to carry. To do this, the engineer needs to determine (identify) the different loads, then quantify them- that is, calculate them in number form. Usually, each load is quantified based on a worst-case scenario - in other words, the engineer will allow for the maximum load, such as an aircraft making a very hard landing, or a bridge being hit by extremely high winds.

After maximum loads have been quantified, an engineer will apply a factor of safety. This is an extra margin to make the component strong enough to carry loads that are higher than the worst-case scenario. For example, a factor of 1.5 increases the load a component can carry by 50%. After this has been factored in, the engineer will then sizes the components that is, calculate their required size.

  Engineers are sometimes criticized because they overdesign things (add excessive factors of safety), which increases costs. However, according to Murphy's Law, “Anything that can go wrong, will.” This suggests that belt and braces- an expression often used in engineering, based on the safest method of holding up trousers - is a sensible approach.

 

4. Выберите правильное слово в скобках:

1 The types of loads that will be encountered must be (designed / determined).

2 Maximum loads are based on predicted (specifications / worst-case scenarios).

3 On top of maximum loads, additional safety margins are (factored in / sized).

4 For cost reasons, components shouldn't be (overdesigned / quantified) .

5 The practice of overdesigning components can be described as the (belt and braces / factor of safety) approach.

6 (Quantifying / Sizing) components means calculating their dimensions.

 

Text 3

 

1.Обратите внимание на перевод следующих слов и словосочетаний:

draw - чертить;

drawing - чертёж, рисунок;

industry - индустрия;

mining - горное дело;

ship-building - кораблестроение, судостроение;

descriptive geometry - начертательная геометрия;

mechanical drawing - машиностроительное черчение.

 

2.Прочитайте текст и переведите при помощи словаря незнакомые слова и словосочетания.

 

3.Прочитайте и переведите весь текст:

 

FROM THE HISTORY OF THE RUSSIAN DRAWING

People learned to draw pictures of the objects around them long before they learned to write. The ability to make simple drawings helped man to develop his first written language. He used picture instead of letters, and in this way told about military campaigns, battles and hunting.

The ancient people drew on the bark of trees, on stone, bone, leather and other materials. In time they learned to make a material called papyrus, which they used specially for writing and for drawing.

People began to use pictures for building houses, palaces and other buildings. As time went on the pictures used for technical purposes changed, took other forms, and gradually turned into drawings.

At first, these drawings consisted only of a single picture showing the object viewed from above. This picture was called a plan. Later, people began to add a front view of the object to this plan. And then other “views’ were added. The methods of picturing objects were improved.

In Russia the people developed their own methods of representation of objects in drawing. Historical documents and the monuments of ancient architecture in Kiev, Vladimir and other cities show that the architects of Ancient Rus (Древняя Русь) used drawings. The method that Andrei Rublev, the famous Russian painter of the 14th—15th centuries, used to depict buildings in his pictures is very similar to one of the methods used in drawing today.

A plan of the city of Moscow was drawn in 1597. Many documents bear witness to the great skill of the Russian graphic artists of those days. Among these documents are A Map of Siberia, A Book of Drawings of the Towns and Lands of Siberia and others.

Industry, mining and ship-building began to develop in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century. This was also a period of progress in the use and improvement of drawings.

Russian inventors also did much to develop methods of making mechanical drawings. Ivan Kulibin, the famous Russian inventor (1735—1818), made drawings of his numerous inventions.

The drawings of Russia’s first steam-powered machines, invented by the outstanding Russian mechanic Ivan Polsunov, are likewise modern drawings.

Very complex drawings were made by Efim and Miron Cherepanov (father and son), the famous Russian mechanics and engineers who invented the first Russian steam engine.

It is interesting to note that Ivan Kulibin, Ivan Polsunov and many others made their drawings by methods which were first described by Gaspard Monge, the French engineer and scientist, only in 1795.

Kosma Frolov, a Russian inventor, made interesting drawings of his hydropower installations, It was in 1787. Vasily Bazhenov, the noted Russian architect (1737—1799), was a very skilful draughtsman. His pupil and assistant, Matvei Kasakov

(1738—1812), who built many beautiful buildings that stand in Moscow to this day, was also very skilled in graphic art. Pyotr Titov, the talented self-taught Russian ship-builder (1843—1894) made superb drawings of ships.

 Modern mechanical drawing is based on scientific principles known as descriptive geometry. The founder of this science in Russia was Professor J. A. Sevastyanov, who solved many problems of descriptive geometry and showed how to apply it to mechanical drawing.

 The famous Russian scientist V. I. Kurdyumov (1853—1904) contributed

much to Russian science. In his numerous works he gave a new scientific trend to many fields of descriptive geometry and developed methods for applying this science to technical drawing.

So the Russian school of engineering graphics was perfected by many Russian architects, mechanics, engineers, technicians and scientists.

 

3. Найдите в тексте ответы на следующие вопросы:

1. How did people tell about their life long ago? 2. What did people use pictures for? 3. What is the difference between a plan and a drawing? 4. Did the architects of Ancient Rus use drawings? 5. What did Andrei Rublev depict in his pictures? 6. How can you prove that graphic art was developed in old Russia? 7. Which inventors made drawings of their inventions? 8. Who was the first to describe methods of drawing? 9. What is mechanical drawing based on?

TOPIC 5. ELECTRICITY

Text 1

 

1.Прочитайте слова по транскрипции:

voltage |ˈvəʊltɪdʒ|, alternating |ˈɔːltɜːneɪtɪŋ|, data |ˈdeɪtə|, transmitting |trænzˈmɪtɪŋ|.

 

2.Обратите внимание на перевод следующих слов и словосочетаний:

electric power - электрическая мощность; электрическая энергия;

transmitting - передающий;

distributing - распределительный;

high voltages - источники высокого напряжения;

direct current - постоянный ток;

alternating current - переменный ток;

power generation - выработка энергии;

transmission - передача;

AC motors - двигатели переменного тока;

DC motors - двигатели постоянного тока.

 

3.Прочитайте текст и переведите при помощи словаря незнакомые слова и словосочетания.

4.Прочитайте и переведите весь текст:

 

ELECTRICITY

The field of electric power is concerned with the design and operation of systems for generating transmitting and distributing electric power. Engineers in this field have brought about several important developments since the late 1970. One of these is the ability to transmit power at extremely high voltages in both the direct current and alternating current modes, reducing power losses proportionately. Another is the realtime control of power generation, transmission, and distribution using computers to analyse the data fed back from the power system to a central station and thereby optimizing the efficiency of the system while it is in operation

A significant advance in the engineering of electric machinery has been the introduction of electronic controls that enable AC motors to run at variablespeeds be adjusting the frequency of the current fed into them. DC motors have also been made to run more efficiently this way.

 

Text 2

 

1.Прочитайте слова по транскрипции:

alternator |ˈɔːltəneɪtə|, alternate |ɔːlˈtɜːnət|, dynamo |ˈdʌɪnəməʊ|.

 

2.Обратите внимание на перевод следующих слов и словосочетаний:

convert – превращать;

generator -     генератор;

alternator -     генератор переменного тока

dynamo - динамо-машина;

magnetic field - магнитное поле.

 

3.Прочитайте текст и переведите при помощи словаря незнакомые слова и словосочетания.

 

4.Прочитайте и переведите весь текст:

 

ELECTRIC MOTORS

As is known, a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy is called a generator, alternator, or dynamo, and a machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy is called a motor. Two related physical principles underlie the operation of generators and motors. The first is the principle of electromagnetic induction discovered by the British scientist Michael Faraday in 1831. If a conductor is moved through a magnetic field, or if the strength of the magnetic field acting on a stationary conducting loop is made to vary, a current is set up or induced in the conductor. The converse of this principle is that of electromagnetic reaction, first observed by the French physicist Andre Marie Ampere in 1820. If a current is passed through a conductor located in a magnetic field, the field exerts a mechanical force on it.

 A motor's purpose is to turn electrical energy into mechanical energy. It takes electricity and turns it into energy that can be used by us.

An electric motor uses magnetism and electric currents to work. There are two different kinds of motors, Alternate Current (AC) and Direct Current (DC) Motors. These kinds of motors use the same parts as a basic electric motor, only using two different kinds of current.

Motors began with electromagnets. In 1831, Michael Faraday succeeded in building the first electric motor. Joseph Henry was working with motors at that time. Henry and Faraday are both credited with building the first experimental electric motors. ...In 1887, Nikola Tesla introduced the Alternate Current (AC) motor. All other motors up to that time had been using direct current. Now, alternate current motors are easier to use than direct current ones.

Today, motors are used everywhere. They are used in cars and many household appliances. Even though many people don't recognize what all it does, the electric motor has become a very useful invention.

 

Text 3

 

1.Прочитайте и переведите весь текст:

 

ELECTRIC BATTERY

In science and technology, a battery is a device that stores energy and makes it available in an electrical form. A battery converts chemical energy into electric energy. It is a connected bunch (or "battery") of electro-chemical devices. How it works? The Voltaic pile was the first modern electric battery, invented by Alessandro Volta in 1800. Volta demonstrated that when metals and chemicals come into contact with each other they produced an electrical current. In his research, Volta placed together several pairs of alternating copper (or silver) and zinc discs separated by cloth and soaked the cloth in brine (salt water) to increase conductivity, and an electrical current was produced.

 

Text 4

 

1.Обратите внимание на перевод следующих слов и словосочетаний:

substances - вещества;

friction - трение;

electron theory - электронная теория;

whereas - при этом;

semi-conductor - полупроводник;

continuous current - непрерывный ток;

galvanoscope - гальваноскоп;

one way switch - однопозиционный выключатель;

two way switch - переключатель на два положения.

 

2.Прочитайте текст и переведите при помощи словаря незнакомые слова и словосочетания.

 

3.Прочитайте и переведите весь текст:

 

THE CONCEPT OF ELECRICAL CURRENT

In the beginning of the 17th century Sir William Gilbert discovered that many substances could be electrified by friction. Gilbert named this effect “electric” after the word “electron” — the Greek name for amber. In 1756 the great Russian scientist М. V. Lomonosov was the first to make theoretical analysis of electrical phenomena.

At present the nature of electrification is explained by the electron theory. According to the modern theory all matter is composed of atoms or tiny particles. There are many kinds of atoms. Each atom consists of a nucleus, a small positively charged mass and a number of lighter negatively charged particles called electrons, which revolve around the nucleus. Normally each atom of a substance is electrically neutral, or it has equal amounts of negative and positive charges, i.e. produces no electrical effects. If the number of negative charges is not equal to the number of positive charges, the matter will produce electrical effects.

When an electric charge is at rest it is spoken of as static electricity, but when it is in motion it is referred to as an electric current. In most cases, an electric current is described as a flow of electric charges along a conductor.

  Not all substances are good conductors of electricity, as a general rule metals are good conductors of electricity, whereas nonmetals are poor conductors. The poorest of conductors are commonly called insulators or nonconductors. There are a large number of substances that are neither good conductors of electricity nor good insulators. These substances are called semi-conductors.

 An electric current which flows in the same direction through a conductor or a current which does not change its polarity is called a direct current or a continuous current. Its abbreviation is D. C. An alternating current (A. C.) flows first in one direction and then in the other.

   An electric circuit is a path through which an electric current flows. This is a complete path along which electrons can transmit their charges. An electric circuit includes a battery, generator, or magnetic means for producing current flow. Some portion of the circuit is made to do useful work.

  The circuit is said to be open when no charges can move due to a break in the path. The circuit is said to be closed when no break exists —when switches are closed and all connections are properly made. Special symbols are used to show electrical systems. There is a wide range of these symbols. There are some of them which are used when we draw circuits:

Fig.1. Circuit symbols

 

 

Text 5

 

1.Прочитайте слова по транскрипции:

ammeter |ˈamɪtə|, amperes |ˈæmpeəz|, voltmeter |ˈvəʊltmiːtə|, voltage |ˈvəʊltɪdʒ|, aluminium |al(j)ʊˈmɪnɪəm|, glass |ɡlɑːs|, ohmmeter |ˈəʊmˌmiːtə|, wattmeter |ˈwɒtmiːtə|.

 

2.Обратите внимание на перевод следующих слов и словосочетаний:

electrical values- электрическая величина;

ammeter - амперметр;

amp - ампер;

volt - вольт;

ohm - ом;

resistance - сопротивление;

ohmmeter - омметр;

galvanometer – гальванометр;

circuit - цепь (в электрике);

shunt - шунт; соединение;

armature coil - якорная катушка.

 

3.Прочитайте текст и переведите при помощи словаря незнакомые слова и словосочетания.

 

4.Прочитайте и переведите весь текст:

 

ELECRICAL MEASURING UNITS AND INSTRUMENTS

Any instrument which measures electrical values is called a meter. An ammeter measures the current in amperes. The unit is named after Andre Marie Ampere, a French scientist, who discovered a great number of facts about electricity over a hundred years ago. The abbreviation for the ampere is amp. A voltmeter measures the voltage and the potential difference in volts. The volt is named after Alessandro Volta, an Italian scientist.

  The current in a conductor is determined by two things, the voltage across the conductor and the resistance of the conductor. Every material object offers some resistance to the flow of an electron current through it. Good conductors like the metals, copper, silver and aluminium offer very little resistance, while nonconductors such as glass, wood and paper offer a very high resistance. The unit by which resistance is measured is called the ohm. The resistance in practice is measured with the ohmmeter. A wattmeter measures electrical power in watts. Very delicate ammeters are often used for measuring very small currents. A meter whose scale is calibrated to read a thousandth of an ampere is called a milliammeter. One whose scale is calibrated in millionth of an ampere is called a microammeter or galvanometer.

  Whenever an ammeter or voltmeter is connected to a circuit to measure electric current or potential difference the ammeter must be connected in series and the voltmeter in parallel.

  As illustrated in Fig.1 (circuit diagram showing the connections for an ammeter and voltemeter) the ammeter is so connected that all of the electron current passes through it. To prevent a change in the electron current when such an insertion is made, all ammeters must have a low resistance. Most ammeters therefore have a low resistance wire, called a shunt, connected across the armature coil. A voltmeter, on the other hand, is connected a cross that part of the circuit for which a measurement of the potential difference is required. If the potential difference between the ends of the resistance R is wanted, the voltmeter is connected as shown.