Практическая часть. Функциональный анализ частей речи в английском языке

Так как при типологическом анализе определение частей речи основано на синтаксических характеристиках слова, автором была поставлена цель показать на примерах то, как в английском языке синтаксический критерий является ведущим для выделения частей речи. Для реализации данной цели были подобраны предложения, взятые из произведений английской литературы, в которых слова выступают в нетипичных для себя функциях, тем самым указывая на ослабление связи с ядром класса, к которому они принадлежат. Проиллюстрировать такое ослабление связи можно на процессах субстантивации прилагательных, адъективации существительных, конверсионном взаимодействии существительного и глагола, конверсионном взаимодействии прилагательного и наречия. Примеры предложений были взяты из следующих источников:

1) Rose Tremain. A Shooting Season, 1984.

)   Kate Pullinger. My mother, My father, and Me, 1997.

)   Graham Swift. Chemistry, 1984.

)   William Trevor. Mr Tennyson, 1981.

)   Deborah Moggach. Empire Building, 1988.

)   William Boyd. Gifts, 1981.

Конверсионное взаимодействие между глаголом и существительным.

You would have laughed, as you are laughing now.had always been enchanted by his laugh. A shooting season. Rose tremain.laughed, took her strong wrist and held her hand to his face.yet he surfaced in her.surface of the water, so near her slippery feet, was absolutely smooth.round the debris of you in all the familiar rooms, touching surfaces you touched.shooting season. Rose tremain.

…his smell still on her body… A shooting season. Rose tremain.had a salty, mineral, unhuman smell. Chemistry. Graham Swift.smelt whisky. Chemistry. Graham Swift.smelt very strong. My Father, My Mother, and Me. Kate Pullinger. would drink a lot from the bottles of whisky and vodka which Ralph brought.drink made Mother go soft and heavy.. Graham Swift.would ask him to explain what he was doing and to name the contents of his various bottles. Chemistry. Graham Swift.name was Mr Tennyson. Mr Tennyson. William Trevor.came up to her and asked her if she’d like to go for a walk.walked up to the cliffs and then along the cliff-path. Mr Tennyson. William Trevor.was hardly anything she’d have disliked more than a ride into the country with Chinny Martin. heard the roar of the Yamaha as her admirer rode away. Mr Tennyson. William Trevor.

“Do you want a ride into town?” Gifts. William Boyd. just stood there while his glance passed over her eye-shadow. Mr Tennyson. William Trevor.glanced up the street. Empire Building. Deborah Moggach.wife told people this too, with a small shake of her head as if she were being philosophical about it. Empire Building. Deborah Moggach.signed the document and shook hands. nodded and turned away. looked alarmed but he gave her a small, reassuring nod. Empire Building. Deborah Moggach.eyed me as if he were waiting for me to give some sign. stared fixedly into my eyes. Chemistry. Graham Swift.closed her eyes. A shooting season. Rose tremain.thought I would not be able to sleep. Chemistry. Graham Swift.his sleep Hamid saw mottled faces, their skin bleeding. Empire Building. Deborah Moggach.is the science of change. You don’t make things in chemistry - you change them. Anything can change. Chemistry. Graham Swifthad a sudden giddying feeling that there is no end to anything. Chemistry. Graham Swift

… how suicide can be murder and how things don’t end. Empire Building. Deborah Moggach.’s how it ended, Jenny. Mr Tennyson. William Trevor.let not winter’s ragged hand deface”, he whispered. Mr Tennyson. William Trevor.love”, he said in his soft voice, almost a whisper. Mr Tennyson. William Trevor.tried to smile again and this time the smile came. Mr Tennyson. William Trevor.smiled bitterly. Chemistry. Graham Swiftshe wore, beneath everything, this look of relief. Chemistry. Graham Swiftwas looking at her face. A shooting season. Rose tremain.in the sunshine, he looked pale beside her. A shooting season. Rose tremain.handed him a glass of wine. A shooting season. Rose tremain.strong hand on her arm wanted to tug her gently down. A shooting season. Rose tremain.was exactly the woman you dreamed of. now I have dreams of you. A shooting season. Rose tremain.dreamed of her book finished and bound. A shooting season. Rose tremain.sighed and let Marcus hear the sigh. A shooting season. Rose tremain.he talked about Shakespeare it seemed more natural. Mr Tennyson. William Trevor.little scenes in the classroom, the tears, the talk: all that brought him closer to Sarah Spence. Mr Tennyson. William Trevor.sounded like a character in a television serial. Mr Tennyson. William Trevor.few sounds, then Arif opened the door. Empire Building. Deborah Moggach.’s got a new family and they, now, take all his love. A shooting season. Rose tremain.love it here. A shooting season. Rose tremain.would honestly feel troubled less. A shooting season. Rose tremain.rough feel of his face was very familiar. A shooting season. Rose tremain., one morning Margaret, her partner in her craft business, telephoned. sound of the telephone ringing was so unfamiliar that it frightened her. A shooting season. Rose tremain.sat at the table in the sunshine, getting accustomed to the gently scented taste of her home-made wine. bread in Yugoslavia always tasted stale. A shooting season. Rose tremain.. Alright. No promises. evening promised to be so warm. A shooting season. Rose tremain.don’t you answer my question?” Empire Building. Deborah Moggach.what sort of answer is that?” Empire Building. Deborah Moggach.he reached the station I would hear his “Ready!” across the water. Chemistry. Graham Swifthad to do this to prove we were not beyond his reach. Chemistry. Graham Swiftthought: we are going to face Ralph. Chemistry. Graham Swiftface had had the same quivery look of being about to spill over. Chemistry. Graham Swiftmade a show of disapproving. Chemistry. Graham Swiftmight hurt Grandfather - to show her allegiance to Ralph. Chemistry. Graham Swiftbrother does not visit our father himself. My Father, My Mother, and Me. Kate Pullinger. is always difficult when the visit ends. My Father, My Mother, and Me. Kate Pullinger. knocked on the door. Empire Building. Deborah Moggach.that night as I am sitting on my bed reading there is a knock on my door. Gifts. William Boyd.

В приведенных выше примерах мы можем проследить конверсионное взаимодействие между глаголом и существительным. В одном из случаев слово употреблено в функции сказуемого (простого глагольного или составного глагольного), то есть в функциях типичных для глаголов. Во втором случае слово употреблено в синтаксических функциях, характерных для существительного (подлежащее и дополнение). Выполнение в предложении той или иной синтаксической функции ведет к тому, что слово приобретает морфологические показатели, характерные для разных частей речи.

Будучи глаголом, слово может обретать грамматическую категорию прошедшего времени, что морфологически проявляется в наличии окончания ed, категорию лица и числа, что проявляется в наличии окончания -s. Будучи существительным слово может определяться притяжательными и указательными местоимениями, употребляться с определенным или неопределенным артиклем. Принимая во внимание то, в какой функции употреблено слово и вышеперечисленные морфологические признаки, можно сделать заключение о его принадлежности к разным частям речи.

Адъективация существительных

And next door to it a newsagent’s run by an indolent Hindu and his wife. Empire Building. Deborah Moggach.need only have taken a look at the cards fixed to the newsagent’s window. Empire Building. Deborah Moggach.a family man like Hamid knew the meaning of those kind of French Lessons. Empire Building. Deborah Moggach.solitary was the life of these young English women with no family to care for them. Empire Building. Deborah Moggach.is a wise shop keeper who is prepared to adapt. Empire Building. Deborah Moggach.is not shop policy. Empire Building. Deborah Moggach.bought the shop. Empire Building. Deborah Moggach.hiss of the spices as they hit the pan. Empire Building. Deborah Moggach.took the spice jar to my room and hid it. Chemistry. Graham Swift

He had doubled the bottle shelf-space. Empire Building. Deborah Moggach.asked for a bottle of cider. Empire Building. Deborah Moggach.would drink a lot from the bottles of whisky and vodka. Chemistry. Graham Swiftsaid his evening prayers on the mat behind his desk. Empire Building. Deborah Moggach.evening he looked into his girls bedroom. Empire Building. Deborah Moggach.saw she was just choosing another chocolate. Empire Building. Deborah Moggach.fetched some choice items: chocolate fancies, iced Kunzle cakes. Empire Building. Deborah Moggach.light shone from Arif’s attic bedroom. Empire Building. Deborah Moggach.walked up the stairs to the attic. Empire Building. Deborah Moggach.you must have a tea party here. Empire Building. Deborah Moggach.small party for Sunday tea, so that he himself could be present. Empire Building. Deborah Moggach.window panes clattered and shook. Empire Building. Deborah Moggach.was sitting up and staring blankly at the open window. A shooting season. Rose tremain.remained alone in his house spending more and more time in his garden shed. Chemistry. Graham Swiftwould still go out to the shed in the garden. Chemistry. Graham Swiftwalked along the path by the ivy-clad garden wall. Chemistry. Graham Swiftevergreen shrubs which filled our garden were defying the onset of autumn. Chemistry. Graham Swiftthe kitchen she put down the plates. Chemistry. Graham Swiftwould observe Mother and Ralph in the living room through the open kitchen hatchway. . Graham Swiftmy bedroom window I could see the dark square of the garden. Chemistry. Graham Swiftnight Father came to my bedroom. Chemistry. Graham Swiftgot up, walked out onto the landing and peered through the landing window. Chemistry. Graham Swiftvoice was a voice on the radio inside an ambulance. Chemistry. Graham Swiftfussed around the ambulance men. Chemistry. Graham Swiftwent down to the park and stood by the pond. Chemistry. Graham Swiftwas almost time for the park gates to be locked. Chemistry. Graham Swiftthis temporary isolation, she had moved contentedly in her sandals, setting up a work table. A shooting season. Rose tremain.celebrated each day’s work with two glasses of the home-made wine. A shooting season. Rose tremain.could summon memories of timeless summer evenings, the most exquisite moments of all the summer holidays. A shooting season. Rose tremain., one summer, she found herself there alone. A shooting season. Rose tremain.brother Charles had been killed by a cricket ball. A shooting season. Rose tremain.also means she doesn’t have to play cricket and risk being killed. A shooting season. Rose tremain.the colour go first from the river, then from the willows and poplars behind it. A shooting season. Rose tremain.willow leaves hung limp and wet. A shooting season. Rose tremain.love other people. Other men I mean. A shooting season. Rose tremain.or two men friends to go out with. A shooting season. Rose tremain.came early. A shooting season. Rose tremain.single electric light bulb hung from a beam in the roof. Chemistry. Graham Swiftit would be his meal tray. Chemistry. Graham Swifthad taken to eating his meals regularly in the shed. Chemistry. Graham Swiftgold can change. Chemistry. Graham Swifton the bench was a pocket watch with a gold chain. Chemistry. Graham Swiftopened a bottle of wine and took it and two glasses. A shooting season. Rose tremain.stirred the mixture with a glass rod. Chemistry. Graham Swiftthin curtains moved on a sunless morning. A shooting season. Rose tremain.morning air was chilly. A shooting season. Rose tremain.came and shot the ducks. A shooting season. Rose tremain.came with guns and had a duck shot. A shooting season. Rose tremain.didn’t often come into the village. Mr Tennyson. William Trevor.began to walk away , up to the village street. Mr Tennyson. William Trevor.drank it at the table with the cat, Tinkle. Mr Tennyson. William Trevor.picked up a wire basket and pretended to be looking at tins of cat food. Mr Tennyson. William Trevor’s very good”, he said, opening her essay book. Mr Tennyson. William Trevor.really enjoyed that essay. Mr Tennyson. William Trevor.went with him from the classroom, down the corridor and out of the door that led to the car park. Mr Tennyson. William Trevor.was there, standing by his Yamaha, beside a car. Mr Tennyson. William Trevor.kissed her cheek and got quickly into the car. A shooting season. Rose tremain.irons his prison jeans and shirts. My Father, My Mother, and Me. Kate Pullinger. prison sits on the top of the ridge, the highest poin in the area. My Father, My Mother, and Me. Kate Pullinger. I am allowed through to the visits room I find a table and sit down. My Father, My Mother, and Me. Kate Pullinger. always wears a blue woolen prison tie for our visits. My Father, My Mother, and Me. Kate Pullinger.

В данных примерах мы встречаем одни и те же существительные, употребленные в различных синтаксических функциях. В первом случае существительные выступают в функциях подлежащего и дополнения, то есть в функциях типичных для существительных. Во втором случае они употреблены в качестве определений к другим существительным. Наличие атрибутивной функции у существительного свидетельствует о его адъективации. Приобретая характерные черты прилагательного, существительное вступает в процесс ослабления связи с ядром своего класса. Из приведенных примеров видно, что существительное, выступающее в атрибутивной функции, может употребляться в сочетании с прилагательным. Согласно О. Есперсену, возможность существительных, находящихся в атрибутивной функции, комбинироваться с прилагательными является признаком того, что существительное вступает в процесс адъективации и сближается с классом прилагательных.

Субстантивация прилагательных. , pasty faces; the losers, the lost, the dispossessed. Empire Building. Deborah Moggach.about lay the ruined and the dispossessed. Empire Building. Deborah Moggach.local blacks were big West Indians who suddenly filled the shop. Empire Building. Deborah Moggach.main income, however, came from the drunks. Empire Building. Deborah Moggach.walking wounded who once ruled the Empire. Empire Building. Deborah Moggach.’d do the same. Mr Tennyson. William Trevor.blacks are friendly and extrovert. Gifts. William Boyd. notice a tall American girl surrounded by chattering Nigerians. Gifts. William Boyd.English girl is called Victoria and is chased all day by a Tunisian called Rida. Gifts. William Boyd.the French in the club seem to adore them. Gifts. William Boyd.find this information sorts out the meek from the strong. My Father, My Mother, and Me. Kate Pullinger. felt the opposite. My Father, My Mother, and Me. Kate Pullinger.

В приведенных выше примерах прилагательные употреблены с определенным артиклем «the» и выступают в синтаксических функциях подлежащего и дополнения. Функции подлежащего и дополнения не являются типичными для прилагательных. Этот факт наряду с наличием такого морфологического признака как определенный артикль позволяет сделать заключение о том, что прилагательные в данных примерах могут классифицироваться как существительные, являющиеся результатом субстантивации. Значение прилагательных, перешедших в синтаксическую позицию существительных так же подвергается определенным изменениям: они обозначают не качество, но группу людей или вещей, связанных на основе определенного качества и таким образом они становятся функциональными синонимами двух подклассов существительных: собирательное и абстрактное существительное. Эту функцию обобщения выполняет определенный артикль. В некоторых из приведенных примеров субстантивированные прилагательные определяются другими прилагательными, что также свидетельствует о их приближении к классу существительных.

Взаимодействие между прилагательным и наречием.

Light came early. A shooting season. Rose tremain.light of early morning was silver. A shooting season. Rose tremain.fell from a divide at the centre of her head, two straight lines on either side of a thing face. Mr Tennyson. William Trevor.coming down the escalators was obliged to look straight at them. The Professional. Ruth Rendell.was lanky, with legs she considered to be too long. Mr Tennyson. William Trevor.she sat there long enough her father would come fetch himself a cup of water. Mr Tennyson. William Trevor.was during the first month of business. Empire Building. Deborah Moggach.sat with his eyes on the TV screen where first a house, then a car, burst into flames. Empire Building. Deborah Moggach.

В данных примерах мы сталкиваемся с явлением взаимодействия прилагательного и наречия. В разных случаях одно и то же слово употребляется в различных синтаксических функциях. В первом случае слово употреблено в функциях, типичных для прилагательных (определение и часть составного именного сказуемого). Во втором случае слово является в предложении обстоятельством, то есть выступает в функции, характерной для наречий. Исходя из функции слова в предложении, мы делаем вывод о том, к какой части речи его отнести.

Из примеров, рассмотренных в практической части данной работы, видно, что синтаксический критерий является ведущим для определения частеречевой принадлежности в английском языке, так как одно и то же слово, выступая в разных синтаксических функциях, приобретает характеристики, свойственные тем частям речи, для которых эта функция является типичной. Приобретая данные характеристики, часть речи теряет связь с ядром своего класса и начинает входить в периферию другого. То есть, взаимодействие частей речи есть неотъемлемая особенность английского языка, встречающаяся довольно часто, что и было проиллюстрировано на примерах предложений, взятых из произведений на английском языке.