PEOPLE IN LAW CASES IN GREAT BRITAIN

Types of Legal Professions

Solicitors

There are about 50,000 solicitors, a number which is rapidly increasing and they make up by far the largest branch of the legal profession in England and Wales. They are found in every town, where they deal with all the day-to-­day work of preparing legal documents for buying and selling real estate, making wills, etc. Solicitors also work on court cases for their clients, prepare cases for barristers to present in the higher courts, and may represent their client in a Magistrates' court.

Barristers

There are about 5,000 barristers who defend or prosecute in the higher courts. Although solicitors and barristers work together on cases, barristers specialize in representing clients in court and the training and career structures for the two types of lawyers are quite separate. In court, barristers wear wigs and gowns in keeping with the extreme formality of the proceedings. The highest level of barristers have the title QC (Queen's Counsel).

Judges

There are a few hundred judges, trained as barristers, who preside in more serious cases. There is no separate training for judges.

Jury

A jury consists of twelve people ("jurors"), who are ordinary people chosen at random from the Electoral Register (the list of people who can vote in elections). The jury listen to the evidence given in court in certain criminal cases and decide whether the defendant is guilty or innocent. If the person is found guilty, the punishment is passed by the presiding judge. Juries are rarely used in civil cases.

Magistrates

There are about 30,000 magistrates (Justices of the Peace or JPs), who judge cases in the lower courts. They are usually unpaid and have no formal legal qualifications, but they are respectable people who are given some training.

Coroners

Coroners have medical or legal training (or both), and inquire into violent or unnatural deaths.

Clerks of the court

Clerks look after administrative and legal matters in the courtroom.

Solicitors and Barristers

England is almost unique in having two different kinds of lawyers, with separate jobs in the legal system. The two kinds of lawyers are solicitors and barristers.

If a person has a legal problem, he will go and see a solicitor. Almost every town has at least one. In fact there are at least 50,000 solicitors in Britain, and the number is increasing. Many problems are dealt with exclusively by a solicitor. For instance, the solicitor deals with petty crimes and some matrimonial matters in Magistrates' Courts, the lowest Courts. He prepares the case and the evidence. He actually speaks in Court for you.

In a civil action he can speak in the County Court, when the case is one of divorce or recovering some debts. In the County Court the solicitor wears a black gown over his ordinary clothes.

A solicitor also deals with matters outside Court. He does the legal work involved in buying a house, for instance. He writes legal letters for you and carries on legal arguments outside Court. If you want to make a will the best man to advise you is a solicitor.

To qualify as a solicitor, a young man or woman joins a solicitor as a "clerk" and works for him whilst studying part time for the "Law Society" exams. Interestingly enough, it is not necessary for you to go to university. When you have passed all the necessary exams, you can "practice", which means you can start business on your own.

Barristers are different from solicitors. Barristers are experts in the interpretation of the Law. They are called in to advise on really difficult points. The barrister is also an expert on advocacy (the art of presenting cases in Court). Indeed, if you desire representation in any Court except the Magistrates' Court, you must have a barrister, with one or two exceptions.

Barristers are rather remote figures. If you need one, for instance, you never see him without your solicitor being with him. Barristers do not have public offices in any street. They work in what are known as chambers, often in London. They all belong to institutions called Inns of Court, which are ancient organizations rather like exclusive clubs. In many ways the remoteness they have and the job they do are medieval in conception.

To qualify as a barrister you have to take the examinations of the Bar Council. These are different from solicitors' examinations. There are over 5,000 barristers in England. A good one can earn 30,000 pounds a year. Only barristers can become judges in an English Court above a Magistrates' Court.

 

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions:

1) What types of law court are there in England and Wales?

2) What is the highest court of appeal in England and Wales?

3) What types of legal professions are mentioned in the text? Characterize each of them shortly.

4) What is the difference between the two types of lawyers, solicitors and barristers, in England? What matters do they deal with?

5) What does one have to do to qualify as a barrister? As a solicitor?

6) Why are barristers considered to be rather remote figures?

7) Who can become judges in an English Court?

 

Exercise 2. Find in the text English equivalents for the following word combinations:

Мировой судья

суд Короны

суд графства

суд по делам несовершеннолетних

правонарушитель

уголовное дело

гражданское дело

расследовать дело

правовая система

составить завещание

мелкое преступление

подсудимый

признать виновным/невиновным

юридическое образование

представлять кого-либо в суде

недвижимое имущество

коллегия адвокатов

Exercise 3. Explain the meaning of the following words and word combinations in italics:

1) They are found in every town, where they deal with all the day-to-­day work of preparing legal documents for buying and selling real estate, making wills, etc.

2) Solicitors … represent their client in a Magistrates' court.

3) There are about 5,000 barristers who defend or prosecute in the higher courts.

4) The jury listen to the evidence given in court in certain criminal cases and decide whether the defendant is guilty or innocent.

5) If the person is found guilty, the punishment is passed by the presiding judge.

6) There are about 30,000 magistrates (Justices of the Peace or JPs).

7) In a civil action he can speak in the County Court, when the case is one of divorce or recovering some debts.

8) If you want to make a will the best man to advise you is a solicitor.

9) Barristers are rather remote figures.

Exercise 4. Complete the following sentences:

1) The most common type of law court in England and Wales is … .

2) More serious criminal cases then go to … .

3) Civil cases (for example, divorce or bankruptcy cases) are dealt with in County courts ... .

4) Appeals from magistrates' courts are heard in … .

5) The highest court of appeal in England and Wales is … .

6) The legal system also includes … (which deal with offenders under seventeen) and … (which investigate violent, sudden or unnatural deaths).

7) … deal with all the day-to-­day work of preparing legal documents for buying and selling real estate, making wills, etc.

8) Barristers specialize in … .

9) Barristers wear … in keeping with the extreme formality of the proceedings.

10) The highest level of barristers have the title … .

11) A jury consist of … people ("jurors"), who are ordinary people chosen … from the Electoral Register (the list of people who can vote in elections).

12) Juries are rarely used in … cases.

13) Coroners have … or … training (or both), and inquire into ... .

14) In the County Court the solicitor wears … over his ordinary clothes.

 

Exercise 5. Look up the following words in an English-English dictionary and copy out the meanings:

1) branch (n.); 2) appeal (n.); 3) the Bar (n.); 4) legal (a.).

 

Exercise 6. Copy out from the text all the words that can be used with the following nouns (make up word combinations).

a case

an appeal

legal

a client

evidence

training

a matter

an action

 

Exercise 7. Fill in the gaps with articles where necessary.

1) … appeals are heard by … higher courts.

2) Certain cases may be referred to … European Court of … Justice in Luxembourg.

3) In addition, … individuals have made … British Government change its practices in … number of areas as … result of petitions to … European Court of … Human Rights.

4) … tribunals deal with …professional standards.

5) There are about 50,000 solicitors, a number which is rapidly increasing and they make up by far … largest branch of … legal profession in …England and …Wales.

6) …clerks look after … administrative and legal matters in … courtroom.

7) England is almost unique in having two different kinds of lawyers, with … separate jobs in … legal system.

8) If … person has … legal problem, he will go and see … solicitor.

9) He actually speaks in … Court for you.

10) He writes … legal letters for you and carries on … legal arguments outside … Court.

 

Exercise 8. Substitute the italicized words and word combinations for their synonyms.

1) Appeals are heard by higher courts.

2) Tribunals deal with professional standards, disputes between individuals, and disputes between individuals and government departments (for example, over taxation).

3) The solicitor deals with petty crimes and some matrimonial matters in Magistrates' Courts, the lowest Courts.

4) In a civil action he can speak in the County Court, when the case is one of divorce or recovering some debts.

5) Barristers are experts in the interpretation of the Law.

6) To qualify as a barrister you have to take the examinations of the Bar Council.

 

Exercise 9. Translate the following sentences into English:

1) Сегодня Верховным Апелляционным судом Великобритании является апелляционный комитет Палаты Лордов. Кроме Апелляционного Комитета Палаты Лордов апелляции в Англии рассматривает Апелляционный Суд. Однако Апелляционный Суд не пересматривает дело, а лишь определяет, верен ли приговор. Крайне редко судьи заслушивают свидетельские показания.

2) Магистратские суды рассматривают основную массу уголовных дел без присяжных (до 98% в год). Они могут приговаривать осужденных лишь к штрафу либо лишению свободы на срок, как правило, до шести месяцев. Если магистраты приходят к выводу, что обвиняемый заслужи­вает более сурового наказания, они передают дело на рассмотрение Суда короны.

3) Более серьезные уголовные дела рассматривает Суд короны, который состоит из 12 присяжных заседателей. Присяжные заседатели избираются наугад, им может быть любой гражданин Великобритании в возрасте от 18 до 70 лет. Основная функция суда присяжных – признание подсудимого виновным или невиновным.

4) Гражданская юрисдикция магистратов крайне ограниченна и связана прежде всего с разбирательством споров о взыскании долгов и по некоторым вопросам семейного права. Магистраты, иногда по традиции называемые мировыми судьями (их насчитывается свыше 20 тысяч), в большинстве своем не являются профессиональными юристами и не обязательно имеют юридическое образование.

5) Магистратские суды выступают также в качестве специализированных судов по делам несовершеннолетних.

6) В Англии и Уэльсе имеются специализированные суды, некоторые из которых носят название трибуналов, что подчеркивает, как правило, их второстепенное значение по сравнению с судами. В частности, в 1964 г. были учреждены промышленные трибуналы, состоящие из трех членов (под председательством профессионального юриста). Они рассматривают споры между предпринимателями и работниками.

7) Функции представителей сторон в гражданском процессе, защиты по уго­ловным делам и оказания иных юридических услуг выполняются адвокатами, которые в Англии издавна делятся на две категории — барристеров и солиси­торов. Барристеры — это юристы, имеющие исключительное право выступать в высших судебных инстанциях (как и солиситоры, они вправе выступать также в судах низших инстанций). Для того чтобы стать барристером, необходимо пройти стажировку у опытного барристера и длительный курс обучения и после сдачи соответствующих экзаменов быть принятым в члены одного из четырех «иннов» — объединений, входящих в корпорацию барристеров. Деятельность барристеров связана со многими традиционными правомочиями и ограничениями. В частности, они должны общаться с клиентами лишь через солиситоров, носить тогу и парик и т.п.

8) Солиситоры — значительно более многочисленная категория юристов. Они дают консультации своим клиентам на постоянной основе, например, по вопросам, связанными с покупкой и продажей недвижимости, составлением завещаний и т.д. Они также готовят к слушанию гражданские и уголовные дела в интересах своих клиентов, высту­пают от имени обвинения или защиты, а также в качестве представителей ин­тересов сторон судах магистратов при рассмотрении дел о мелких правонарушениях и бракоразводных дел в судах низших инстанций. Кандидаты в солиситоры должны иметь юридическое образование либо пройти курс обу­чения при Юридическом обществе, они сдают специальные экзамены и проходят двухлетнюю стажировку.

9) В обязанности коронеров входит расследование случаев насильственной или внезапной смерти.

 

THE EXECUTIVE

 

The executive can be divided into three parts.

The Privy Council. The Privy Council developed from a small group of royal advisers at court into the chief source of executive authority. But its position was weakened in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries as more of its functions were transferred to a developing parliamentary Cabinet.

Today its main role is to advise the monarch on a range of matters, like the resolution of constitutional issues and the approval of Orders in Council, such as the granting of Royal Charters to public bodies. The most important task of the Privy Council today is performed by its Judicial Committee. This serves as the final court of appeal from those dependencies and Commonwealth countries which have retained this avenue of appeal. It may also be used as an arbiter for a wide range of courts and committees in Britain and overseas, and its rulings can be influential.

The office of Privy Councillor is an honorary one, conferred, for example, on former Prime ministers.

The Ministry. The Ministry is the government of the moment. The head of the Ministry is the Prime Minister. The functions of the Prime Minister are: leading the majority party; running the Government; appointing Cabinet Ministers and other ministers; representing the nation in political matters.

Upon accepting office the Prime Minister must form a government, that is, select a cabinet and ministry from among the Members of Parliament of his own party. The Cabinet constitutes the centre of the government and is composed of about 20 of the most important ministers. All major decisions of the Government are made by the Cabinet, and therefore it is the Cabinet which forms Government policy. Decisions made by the Cabinet must be unanimous. It makes its decisions collectively and is collectively responsible to Parliament.

After the Prime Minister has formed his cabinet, he selects the rest of his ministry. Most of these ministers are the political heads of government departments and are members of one of the Houses.

Government Departments. Government departments are responsible for implementing government policy. Each department is headed by two people: a political head who is usually the minister, and an administrative head from the Civil Service, called a permanent secretary. They are responsible for a permanent staff which is part of the Civil Service. There are many such departments, for example the Home Office, the Department of Education, the Ministry of Defense, etc. The most important department is the Treasury, and the Prime Minister is usually its political head. It is the department which controls the economy of the nation.

As well as government departments there are government agencies formed to operate public services, e.g., the Post Office, British Rail, etc. Most of these agencies are subject to the control of one of the government departments.

 

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions:

1) What are the three parts of the executive branch?

2) How did the Privy Council develop?

3) What are the functions of the Privy Council nowadays?

4) Who can become the Privy Councillor?

5) What is the Ministry and who is its head?

6) What are the functions of the Prime Minister?

7) What does it mean to form a government?

8) What do you know about the Cabinet?

9) What are government departments responsible for?

10) Who heads government departments?

11) What government departments do you know?

12) What is the role of government agencies?

 

Exercise 2. Find in the text English equivalents for the following word combinations:

вступать в должность

сформировать правительство

круг вопросов

почетная должность

единогласное решение

осуществлять политику правительства

подлежать контролю

исполнительная власть

передать функции

постановление суда

коммунальные службы

Exercise 3. Explain the meaning of the following words and word combinations in italics:

1) Today its main role is to advise the monarch on a range of matters, like the resolution of constitutional issues and the approval of Orders in Council, such as the granting of Royal Charters to public bodies.

2) This serves as the final court of appeal from those dependencies and Commonwealth countries which have retained this avenue of appeal.

3) It may also be used as an arbiter for a wide range of courts and committees in Britain and overseas …

4) The office of Privy Councillor is an honorary one, conferred, for example, on former Prime ministers.

5) Upon accepting office the Prime Minister must form a government.

6) Decisions made by the Cabinet must be unanimous.

Exercise 4. Complete the following sentences:

1) The executive can be divided into … parts.

2) The Privy Council developed from … into … .

3) Its position was weakened in … centuries as more of its functions were transferred to … .

4) The most important task of the Privy Council today is performed by … .

5) The office of Privy Councillor is an … one, conferred, for example, on … .

6) The Ministry is … .

7) The functions of the Prime Minister are: leading …; running …; appointing …; representing … .

8) The Cabinet is collectively responsible to … .

9) Most of these ministers are … of government departments and are members of … .

10) The most important department is the Treasury, and the Prime Minister is usually its … .

 

Exercise 5. Look up the following words in an English-English dictionary and copy out the meanings:

1) authority (n.); 2) arbiter (n.); 3) agency (n.); 4) serve (v.); 5) operate (v.).

 

Exercise 6. Copy out from the text all the words that can be used with the following nouns (make up word combinations).

a function

a government

a department

a decision

policy

 

Exercise 7. Fill in the gaps with articles where necessary.

1) … head of … Ministry is … Prime Minister.

2) Upon accepting … office … Prime Minister must form … government, that is, select … cabinet and ministry from among … Members of … Parliament of his own party.

3) Each department is headed by two people: … political head who is usually … minister, and … administrative head from … Civil Service, called … permanent secretary.

4) There are many such departments, for example, … Home Office, … Department of … Education, … Ministry of … Defense, etc.

5) It is … department which controls … economy of … nation.

6) As well as … government departments there are … government agencies formed to operate … public services, e.g., … Post Office, … British Rail, etc.

Exercise 8. Substitute the italicized words and word combinations for their synonyms.

1) The Privy Council developed from a small group of royal advisers at court into the chief source of executive authority.

2) The Cabinet constitutes the centre of the government and is composed of about 20 of the most important ministers.

3) All major decisions of the Government are made by the Cabinet, and therefore it is the Cabinet which forms Government policy.

4) Government departments are responsible for implementing government policy.

5) They are responsible for a permanent staff which is part of the Civil Service.

6) Most of these agencies are subject to the control of one of the government departments.

 

Exercise 9. Translate the following sentences into English:

1) Тайный Совет – орган советников британской королевы. Тайный совет был могущественным учреждением, сейчас он во многом церемониальный. Со временем большинство полномочий Тайного совета перешили к кабинету министров. Должность Тайного советника является одной из почетнейших в государстве. Тайный Совет имеет также судебные функции. Судебный комитет Тайного совета выполняет функцию высшего апелляционного суда для стран - членов Содружества.

2) Принцип верховенства парламента не соответствует реалиям политической власти в Британии. Когда монархия отошла от власти, лишь формально сохранив корону, исполнительные функции перешли не к парламенту, а к королевским министрам – т.е. к премьер-министру и кабинету, состоящему из примерно 20 главных министров. Премьер-министр формирует правительство из членов своей партии сразу же после вступления в должность. Премьер-министр и кабинет входят в парламент и являются его членами.

3) Члены кабинета определяют правительственную политику и ответственны за нее перед парламентом. Министры кабинета являются также политическими главами основных государственных департаментов. Им помогают команды младших министров. Премьер-министр и члены кабинета руководят примерно 20 министерствами, такими как министерство внутренних дел, министерство образования, министерство обороны, министерство финансов и др.

4) Все решения кабинета министров должны приниматься единогласно. Премьер-министр председательствует на заседаниях кабинета, контролирует повестки дня, назначает и смещает членов кабинета и около 80 младших министров, не входящих в кабинет. Он возглавляет партию большинства в палате общин и представляет Британию за рубежом.

5) Все коммунальные службы, такие как почтовая служба, железные дороги, подлежат контролю со стороны одного из правительственных департаментов, который несет за них ответственность перед парламентом.

 

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

For local governmental purposes, England is divided into 39 nonmetropolitan counties, 6 metropolitan counties, and Greater London (established in 1965 as a separate administrative entity). The counties are subdivided into a total of about 330 districts, which together are further divided into some 10,000 parishes. Each level of local government is presided over by a council, the members of which are elected to four-year terms. In districts that have the title of city or borough, the chairperson of the council is the mayor. Before the reorganization of local government in 1974, England was divided into 46 administrative counties, Greater London, and 79 county boroughs.

The government of Great Britain is unitary in structure. Thus, the powers of local government derive from Parliamentary acts, and responsibility for the overall administration of the country rests within specified cabinet ministries. Local authorities, however, are essentially independent.

Substantial changes in local government continued throughout the 1980s. The Greater London Council and the six major conurbations were abolished in 1986. The present structure was essentially established by a Local Government Act in 1972. Shire counties have county, district, and parish councils. Metropolitan areas have joint authorities, district councils, and parish councils. District council members are elected for four-year terms; most other councilors are elected for three-year terms.

There is no constitutional division of powers between central and local authorities in Britain, but local units are responsible for police and fire services, education, libraries, highways, traffic, housing, building regulations, and environmental health.

London is administered by the Corporation of the City of London, by the 32 metropolitan borough councils, and by other local authorities.

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions:

1) What is the administrative division of Great Britain? What is the purpose of it?

2) What is the structure of the local government? When was it established?

3) What can you say about the structure of the government of Great Britain?

4) What changes in local government happened in the 1980s?

5) What is the local government responsible for?

 

Exercise 2. Find in the text English equivalents for the following word combinations:

подразделять

значительные изменения

председательствовать

возлагаться на кого-либо

отменить, упразднить

Exercise 3. Explain the meaning of the following words and word combinations in italics:

1) The government of Great Britain is unitary in structure.

2) The Greater London Council and the six major conurbations were abolished in 1986.

3) Metropolitan areas have joint authorities, district councils, and parish councils.

4) There is no constitutional division of powers between central and local authorities in Britain.

Exercise 4. Complete the following sentences:

1) For local governmental purposes, England is divided into … nonmetropolitan counties, … metropolitan counties, and … (established in 1965 as a separate …).

2) Each level of local government is presided over by …, the members of which are elected to … terms.

3) In districts that have the title of city or borough, the chairperson of the council is … .

4) The present structure was essentially established by … .

5) Local units are responsible for … .

Exercise 5. Look up the following words in an English-English dictionary and copy out the meanings:

1) government (n.); 2) entity (n.); 3) power (n.); 4) administration (n.); 5) conurbation (n.).

 

Exercise 6. Fill in the gaps with articles where necessary.

1) … counties are subdivided into … total of about 330 districts.

2) … local authorities, however, are essentially independent.

3) … district council members are elected for … four-year terms; … other councilors are elected for … three-year terms.

Exercise 7. Substitute the italicized words and word combinations for their synonyms.

1) The Privy Council developed from a small group of royal advisers at court into the chief source of executive authority.

2) Thus, the powers of local government derive from Parliamentary acts, and responsibility for the overall administration of the country rests within specified cabinet ministries.

3) Substantial changes in local government continued throughout the 1980s.

4) Shire counties have county, district, and parish councils.

5) London is administered by the Corporation of the City of London, by the 32 metropolitan borough councils, and by other local authorities.

 

Exercise 8. Translate the following sentences into English:

1) Для местных органов Великобритании свойственна значительная независимость в принятии решений. Полномочия органов местного управления в Великобритании регулируются парламентскими актами.

2) Актом о местном управлении 1972 года в целях организации местного самоуправления Англия разделена на рафствами. Графства подразделяются на округа, некотоые из которых (так называемые «сельские» округа) в свою очередь могут делиться на приходы. Некоторые округа именуются городами (boroughs), что можно рассматривать как дань историческому прошлому. В каждом графстве, округе, приходе образуется совет в составе председателя и советников, которые избираются сроком на четыре года. Если округ получил статус "города", то председатель совета, как правило, именуется "мэром". Отдельный регион может иметь три уровня местного управления: совет графства, совет округа, приходский совет, но на большей территории страны действуют два уровня: совет графства, совет округа.

3) В Англии существует три типа местного самоуправления: уникальный Большой Лондон, шесть так называемых муниципальных графских округов и тридцать девять немуниципальные графства.

4) Разграничением полномочий между различными уровнями местного управления ведает парламент. В Англии действует довольно четкое распределение функций. Так, советы графств занимаются вопросами транспортного развития, дорожного движения, охраны порядка (полиции), образования, социального обслуживания и пожарной безопасности. Советы округов занимаются здравоохранением, местным планированием, жилищным строительством, налогообложением. Советы приходов решают все те вопросы, которые не входят в компетенцию вышестоящих органов, такие как распределение земельных участков, пешеходные дорожки, местности для отдыха, автобусные стоянки. Ответственность за положение дел в области образования, здравоохранения и охраны порядка делится между центральными и местными органами власти.