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Вариант 1

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Текст №1

Criminal Law

1. Crime is categorized as a part of public law – the law regulating the relations between citizens and the state. Crimes can be thought of as acts which the state considers to be wrong and which can be punished by the state.

2. In many legal systems it is an important principle that a person cannot be considered guilty of a crime until the state proves he committed it. The suspect himself need not prove anything, although he will of course help himself if he can show evidence of his innocence. The state must prove his guilt according to high standards, and for each crime there are precise elements which must be proven. In codified systems, these elements are usually recorded in statutes. In common law systems, the elements of some crimes are detailed in statutes; others, known as «common law crimes», are still described mostly in case law.

3. There are usually two important elements to a crime: (I) the criminal act itself; and (II) the criminal state of mind of the person when he committed the act. In Anglo-American law these are known by the Latin terms of (I) Actus Reus and (II) Mens Rea. If the prosecution fails to prove either actus or mens, the court must decide there was no crime and the case is over.

4. But even if actus and mens have been proved, a defendant may still avoid guilt if he can show he has a defense – a reason the court should excuse his act. Different systems of law recognize different and usually limited sets of defenses. For example, English law sometimes allows the defense of duress – being forced to commit a crime because of threats that you or someone else will be harmed if you don’t. Another defense is that of insanity. In most countries a person cannot be found guilty of a crime if in a doctor’s opinion he cannot have been responsible for his actions because of mental illness. But this defense requires careful proof.

5. Nearly every system of law recognizes the defense of self-defense. In English law, a defendant can avoid guilt for injuring someone if he can convince the court that the force he used was reasonable to protect himself in the circumstances.

6. Most criminal laws in the world refer to acts of violence or theft. Sometimes governments create new crimes by identifying a form of behavior and passing a new law to deal with it. In most industrialized countries existing theft laws were not adequate to deal with computer crimes where complex kinds of information are stolen, altered or used to deceive others, and, thus, new laws have been passed.

2. Выпишите из Т екста 1 английские эквиваленты следующих слов и выражений: преступление; совершить преступление; доказательство; невиновность; намерение совершить преступление; виновный в совершении преступления; доказать вину; обвинение (сторона в судебном процессе); подозреваемый; ответчик; смягчающее вину обстоятельство; физическое принуждение; невменяемость; насильственное деяние; нарушать закон.

Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на употребление инфинитивных оборотов.

1. They are supposed to know the principle of lawon which the decision is based.

2. She is said to have once been a famous lawyer.

3. How can you expect anyone to think well of us when such things are written about us?

4. She appears to know everything about the English legal system.

4. Прочитайте T екст №2 и устно переведите его на русский язык. Письменно переведи­те 2-й абзац текста.

Текст № 2

1. Each state has an independent system of courts operating under the constitution and laws of the state. Broadly speaking, the state courts are based on the English judicial system as it existed in colonial times, but as modified by statutory enactments; the character and names of the courts differ from state to state. The state courts as a whole have general jurisdiction, except in cases in which exclusive jurisdiction has been vested in the federal courts. In cases involving the federal Constitution or federal laws or treaties, the state courts are governed by the decisions of the Supreme Court and their decisions are subject to be reviewed by that Court.

2. Cases involving the federal Constitution, federal laws, or treaties may be brought to either the state courts or the federal courts. Ordinary civil suits not involving any of these elements can be brought only to the state courts, except in cases of diversity of citizenship between the parties, when the suit may be brought to a federal court. By act of Congress, however, suits involving federal questions or diversity of citizenship may be brought to the federal courts only when the controversy involves $10,000 or more, so that all such cases involving a smaller amount must be brought to the state courts exclusively. In accordance with a congressional enactment, a suit brought to a state court that could have been brought to a federal court may be removed to the federal court at the option of the defendant.

3. County courts of general original jurisdiction exercise both law and equity jurisdictions in most of the states; a few states maintain the system of separate courts of law and equity inherited from the English judicial system. Most states also maintain separate criminal and civil courts of original jurisdiction. In some states, the same courts of original jurisdiction deal with both civil and criminal cases; these courts usually have two levels, one handling misdemeanors and civil claims under $5000, the other handling felonies and civil claims over $5000.

4. Between the lower courts and the supreme appellate courts, in a number of states, are intermediate appellate courts which, like the federal courts of appeals, provide speedier justice for litigants by disposing of a large number of cases that otherwise would be added to the overcrowded calendars of the higher courts.

5. Courts of last resort, the highest appellate tribunals of the states in criminal and civil cases and in law and equity, are generally called supreme courts. In New York state, however, the Supreme Court is a trial court, the highest appellate court of New York, as well as of Maryland, is called the Court of Appeals.

6. The state court systems also include a number of minor courts with limited jurisdiction. These courts dispose of minor offenses and relatively small civil actions. Included in this classification are police and municipal courts in cities and larger towns and the courts presided over by justices of the peace in rural areas.

7. The Supreme Court, free to draft its own agenda through the discretionary control of its docket, harmonizes conflicting interpretations of national law and articulates constitutional rights. The Supreme Court is helped at this crucial stage by the solicitor general, who represents the executive branch of government before the High Court. His influence with the justices affects their choice of cases to review.

5. Выполните лексико-грамматические задания на основе содержания Tекста 2:

5.1. Выпишите из текста английские эквиваленты следующих слов и выражений: действовать в соответствии с конституцией, предусмотренный законом, законодательный акт, гражданский иск, сторона (по делу), ответчик, уголовное (гражданское) дело, проступок, тяжкое преступление, иск, сторона в гражданском процессе, гражданский процесс.

5 . 2 . Озаглавьте текст. Напишите на английском языке краткую аннотацию прочи­танного текста (не более 5 предложений).

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Annotation	Аннотация
1. The text under review is devoted to …  (the problem of…/ the description of….)	1. Рассматриваемый текст посвящен…. (проблеме…/ описанию…)
2. The text under the title ”….” is about ……….	2. В тексте под названием «…» речь идет о…….
3. It discusses …    (problems relating to…/ the process(es) of…. )	3. В нем обсуждае(ю)тся……. (проблемы, связанные с……/… процесс(ы)..…..)
4. The text provides information on ………… .	4. В тексте предоставляется информация о……….
5. It touches upon the problem(s) of ……  (the application of…./ the analysis of……)	5. В нем затрагивае(ю)тся проблема(ы)… (применения……./ анализа……….)
6. The text (It) can be divided into … logical parts.	6. Текст (Его) можно разделить на …логических частей.
7. The first (second / third /…) part tells about… (points out that…/ describes …/ explains…)	7. В первой (второй/ третьей/…) части говорится о .. (отмечается…/ описывается…/объясняется)
8. Then follows ……… (the discussion on…/ the description of… / the explanation of…)	8. Далее следует …… (обсуждение……/ описание……   / объяснение…..)
9. It is pointed out that …………………...	9. Отмечается, что ……………………………….
10. The next part describes…… (the peculiarities of …/ characteristics of…… / advantages of…..)	10. В следующей части описывается …… (особенности…../ свойства……/ преимущества…...)
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12. It is stressed that ……………………..	12. Подчеркивается, что…………………………….
13. It should be noted that ………………	13. Следует / Необходимо отметить, что……………
14. It is known that ……………………. .	14.  Известно, что…………………………………….
15. It can be concluded that … ………   / The author concludes that…………..…..	15.  Можно сделать вывод о том, что…………… / Автор делает вывод о том, что………..…
16. In my opinion … / I think that …/ From my point of view … the information presented is……… (interesting /of importance / valuable / up-to-date   / useful (for ….) ……………..	16. По моему мнению…../ Я думаю, что………./ С моей точки зрения……   представленная информация является…… (интересной / важной / ценной / современной /          полезной (для….)…….

 

 

Вариант 2

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Текст 1

Torts

1. The concept of tort – a wrongful act among private individuals – exists in most modern systems of law. The definitions of many torts closely resemble definitions of crimes. For example, the tort of conversion in English law covers taking, destroying or selling someone else’s goods, as does the crime of theft. When a tort is committed, the same act is often also a crime. But the essential difference between torts and crimes is that the former are the subject of civil law disputes between private individuals, and the latter are prosecuted by the state. Sometimes an individual takes an action in the law of tort because he has been the victim of the crime but has gained no benefit from the criminal prosecution.

2. There are other differences between torts and crimes. As for all civil actions, the standard of proof required is lower than in criminal prosecutions. And for many torts it is not necessary to show any particular mental element, so tort actions are often appropriate in the case of accidents. Тhe law of tort covers a wide area of wrongdoings.

3. The requirements of proof differ for each tort. Sometimes it is necessary to show a degree of carelessness, as in the tort of negligence. In others, a defendant may be liable even if he was not at fault, such as the strict liability tort where an animal you keep on your land manages to escape and cause damage. In some torts it is necessary for the plaintiff to show that he has suffered actual damage or injury, such as the tort of nuisance, whereas in others no harm need be shown.

4. Although some torts refer to specific kinds of wrongdoing, the tort of negligence is used in many different situations: when someone falls into a hole in the road, for example, or is given the wrong treatment by a hospital, or is injured by faulty machinery at work. The number of negligence actions is increasing all over the world, as is the amount of damages.

5. At one time cases were only actionable if personal injury or damage to property could be shown, but it is now possible to claim for financial loss connected to this. Indeed, a person may sue for economic loss alone if this resulted from a negligent false statement, as in the case of a garage owner whose business failed to make profits because the previous owner had not told him a new road being built would divert cars away from the garage. Damages are now awarded for the mental distress caused by an accident, as well as the physical suffering. And it may even be possible for a third party to sue after suffering nervous shock as the result of witnessing an accident.

2. Выпишите из Текста 1 английские эквиваленты следующих слов и выражений: гражданское правонарушение; противоправное деяние; возбудить гражданское дело; истец; ответчик; спор; подлежать преследованию; предъявлять иск; возмещение ущерба; обязанность соблюдать осторожность; извлекать пользу; противоправное деяние, подлежащее рассмотрению в гражданском суде; жертва; доказательство.