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These forms cannot, of course, be called `Passive`, as far as Hindi is concerned, since the subject in each case acts and is not `acted upon` See:- (a) The forms of a Verb indicating the type of the character of the action etc. denoted by it are called Aspect.

(b) Hindi Verbs have numerous `Aspects`, such as Terminate, Progressive, Iterative, Intensive, Effective, Inceptive etc. All the Aspects (i.e. Verb-forms denoting nature of action), except the Terminate, are made by combining the main Verb with various subsidiary Verbs.

In their origin, in Sanskrit and Prakrit, they had the Passive Construction.

If a Verb has two Objects, it agrees with the primary object (94-e)

ÙðøüÐð÷ ÜðÙð ¨îð÷ Çð÷ ò¨îÃðð×ð÷ü Çó `I gave two books to Ram`.

(a) The Past Participle is formed by appending ¡ð to the root:

(b) However, the root ending in ¤ and ýá shorten their vowels before the -¡ð and, in the case of-ýá roots, a-Úð is inserted between the root and the-¡ð. Thus-

(c) -Úð is similarly inserted in case of the roots ending in - ¡ð -¦ or - ¡ð÷. Thus -

(d) The following are exceptional forms:-

196. These forms, when used as Verbs of the Past Tense, modify their -¡ð to ýá in the Feminine Singular, to - ýá in the Feminine Plural, and to - ¦ in the Masculine Plural. Thus :-

and There is, however, no modification due to Person. The Past Indicative forms of µðâð are:-

With a Masculine Subject:-

Singular Plural

With a Feminine Subject:-

Note: (i) The regular and preferable Feminine forms of ±ðÚðð, ¡ðÚðð etc. are ±ðÚðó, ¡ðýá, ±ðÚðóü, ¡ðÚðóü. They are frequently written as ±ðýá, ¡ðýá. ±ðýáü ¡ðýá ÷etc. Similarly, the regular Masc. Plurals of these forms ±ðÚð÷ and ¡ðÚð÷ are also written as ±ð¦ and ¡ð¦, èô¡ð makes èôýá, èôýáü and èô¦ (also written as èôÚð÷). èôãð÷ is now sub-standard.

(ii) Past Participles which edn in - ýÚðð in the Masc. Sg., form their Fem. by changing this ýÚðð to - ýá (sg.) or - ýáü (Pl.). Thus, òâðÚðð makes âðó, âðóü (not òâðÚðó, òâðÚðóü as expected), òÇÚðð makes Çó, Çóü; ò¨îÚðð makes ¨îó, ¨îóü, òÑðÚðð makes Ñðó, Ñðóü etc.

It is to be noted that a Past Participle, when used as a Verb of the Past, modifies its signification accordingly. ±ðÚðð as a Past Participle (Adjective) means `gone` but as a Verb `he went`.

(a) The forms given in 196 (a) and (b) above have the Subjectival construction: the Verbs agree with the Subjects in Number and Gender. This, as a rule, is the case with all the Intransitive Verbs. With the Transitive Verbs, however, the Objectival construction is the rule. The Verb in such cases agrees with the Object in Gender and Number and the Subject is placed in the Oblique form with Ðð÷. See :- Ðð÷ is attached to the Subject of a Transitive Verb when it is used in the Past (Participle) form:

âðÀÿ¨÷î Ðð÷ Òîâð ®ððÚðð `the boy ate the fruit`;
ÜðÙð Ðð÷ ò¨îÃðð×ð ÑðÁÿó `Ram read the book`;
±ððÚðð÷ü Ðð÷ ÇõÏð òÇÚðð `the cows gave milk`;
³ðð÷Àð÷ü Ðð÷ ±ððÀÿó ®ðóüµðó `the horses pulled the carriage`;
Øððýá Ðð÷ Ñðëð òâð®ðð èø `the brother has written a letter`;
âðÀÿ¨îó Ðð÷ ®ððÐðð ×ðÐððÚðð Æðð `the girl had cokked the food`;

But the Subject of an Intransitive Verb in the past has the direct form:

âðÀÿ¨îð ¡ðÚðð `the boy came`;
³ðð÷Àÿð ÇðøÀÿð `the horse ran`;
±ððÚð÷ü ±ðÚðóü `the cows went`.

Exceptions:-

A few Transitive Verbs like âððÐðð `to bring,» ØðõâðÐðð `to forget`, ×ðð÷âðÐðð `to speak`, do not take the Subject with Ðð÷; while with çðÙð»ðÐðð `to understand` and ×ð¨îÐðð `to chatter`, Ðð÷ is optional. See :-

âðÀÿ¨îð ò¨îÃðð×ð âððÚðð `the boy brought the book`;
×ðòèÐð÷ü Òîâð âððÚðóü `the sisters brought fruits`;
ãðè ×ðð÷âðð `he said`;
Ùðøü çðÙð»ðð `I understood`;
ÙðøüÐð÷ ¡ðÑð¨îó ×ððÃð Ððèóü çðÙð»ðó `I did not understand what you said`.

Note: (i) It will be observed that ÑðÁÿó in the first sentence has Fem. Sg. form because the Object ò¨îÃðð×ð is Fem. Sg. The subject (Ram) ÜðÙð, which is Masc. Sg., does not affect the Verb. ®ððÚðð, Ãðð÷Àÿ÷ and Ñðó in the other three sentences, similarly, agree with the Objects ®ððÐðð (Masc, Sg.) Òîâð (Masc. Pl), and µððÚð (Fem. Sg.).

These forms cannot, of course, be called `Passive`, as far as Hindi is concerned, since the subject in each case acts and is not `acted upon` See: In their origin, in Sanskrit and Prakrit, they had the Passive Construction.

If a Verb has two Objects, it agrees with the primary object (94-e)

ÙðøüÐð÷ ÜðÙð ¨îð÷ Çð÷ ò¨îÃðð×ð÷ü Çó `I gave two books to Ram`.

There are a few exceptione to the above rule.

The roots âðð `bring`, Øðõâð `forget`, çðÙð»ð `understand, realize`, ×ð¨î `chatter, talk idly`, ×ðð÷âð `speak`, âðÀÿ `fight`, quarrel`, ÀÜ `fear`, òÙðâð `meet` have the subjectival construction in the past inspite of being Transitive. However,

âðð `bring` is, in fact, a compound Verb made of âð÷ `take` + ¡ð `come`; and since ¡ð is Intransitive, it affects the construction of âðð. A sentence like ãðè ò¨îÃðð×ð âððÚðð is to be constuured as ãðè ò¨îÃðð×ð âð÷ (¨îÜ) ¡ðÚðð `he came having taken the book`. See:- It is important to remember that, whether the main root is Transitive or Intransitive, a compound Verb admits of objectival construction (with a past participle) only it the Subsidiary is Transitive. Thus:
Ùðøü Ðð÷ µððÚð Ñðó `I took tea` (objectival construction),
ÙðøüÐð÷ µððÚð Ñðó âðó `I have taken tea` (objectival construction because âðó is trans.) But, Ùðøü µððÚð Ñðó µðô¨îð `I have finished taking tea` (subj. constr.because µðô¨îð is intrans.).Main Verb: Bare - Root (Absolutive Form)

In the compound verbs of this class, the main Verb has the absolutive form without ¨îÜ (243) which is identical with its root form, and remains unchanged. The subsidiary Verbs commonly used are as follows:- (a).

Øðõâð `forget` is generally used as Compound Verb together with ¸ðð `go` which is Intransitive and, therefore, helps in retaining the subjectival construction. ÜðÙð Úðè ×ððÃð Øðõâð ±ðÚðð `Ram forgot this thing` is much more frequent than ÜðÙð Úðè ×ððÃð Øðõâðð. ÜðÙð Øðõâðð or Ùðøü Øðõâðð would, in fact, mean `Ram erred or I erred`, where Øðõâðð is Intransitive. See:- It is important to remember that, whether the main root is Transitive or Intransitive, a compound Verb admits of objectival construction (with a past participle) only it the Subsidiary is Transitive. Thus:
Ùðøü Ðð÷ µððÚð Ñðó `I took tea` (objectival construction),
ÙðøüÐð÷ µððÚð Ñðó âðó `I have taken tea` (objectival construction because âðó is trans.) But, Ùðøü µððÚð Ñðó µðô¨îð `I have finished taking tea` (subj. constr.because µðô¨îð is intrans.).

×ð¨î and ×ðð÷âð are used both as Transitive and as Intransitive. In ãðè ×ð¨îð `he chattered`, ×ð¨î is Intransitive, and in £çðÐð÷ ×ðèôÃð ¨ôî¶ ×ð¨îð `he talked a lot of non-sense`, it is Transitive. In ãðè ×ðð÷âðð `he spoke`, ×ðð÷âð is Intransitive, and in £çðÐð÷ »ðó¿ ×ðð÷âðð `he spoke lie`, it is Transitive. However, »ðõ¿ ×ðð÷âðð is also current.

çðÙð»ð has both the construction: Ùðøü çðÙð»ðð, ÙðøüÐð÷ çðÙð»ðð `I thought or understood`.

ÀÜ, âðÀÿ and òÙðâð are treated as Intransitive Verbs in Hindi. The `objects` of these Verbs attach çð÷ which signifies `from` or `with`:

âðÀÿ, however, is Transitive with a cognate object (165-c) £çðÐð÷ ¨îýá âðÀÿðýÚððü âðÀÿóü `he fought several battles`. Omission of Ðð÷ in the above Verbs may partly be due to dialectic influence.

A Transitive Verb, whose object takes the case-sign ¨îð÷, has Neutral construction in the past indicative:

Exceptions:- Verbs requaring two objects never have the Neutral construction:

The Intransitive Verb ¶óü¨î `sneeze` and ®ððûçð `cough` have the Neutral construction in the Past Indicative : ¨îÙðâðð Ðð÷ ¶óü¨îð `Kamla sneezed`. ÙðøüÐð÷ ®ððûçðð `I coughed`. (Ùðøü ®ððûçðð is also correct).

(a) The Indicative Past, as discussed above, invariably refers to a particular act done in the past. It is never used with reference to an act habitually or regularly done in the past, for which the habitual past is used. See:-

ãðè ¸ðð Üèð Æðð «he was going` (going on progressive),
ãðè ±ðÚðð «he went`, (done - terminate),
ÙðøüÐð÷ ò¨îÃðð×ð ÑðÁÿó «I read the book` (done - terminate)

Note:- The (simple) past is not use with reference to an act habitually or regularly done in the past: for this habitual past is use. See :-

(e) Habitual past tense represents an act as habitually or regularly done in the past.

ãðè çðÇð çðÃÚð ×ðð÷âðÃðð Æðð «He always spoke the truth`,
ãðè ÙðèóÐð÷ Ùð÷ü ¦¨î ×ððÜ ×ðÙ×ðýá ¸ððÃðð Æðð «He went (used to go) to Bombay once every month`,

The common forms noted above are, obviously, terminate:they represent a particular past action as a whole or as a fact, not as going on. For the progressive, please see:-

(a) The above forms are terminate, not progressive: they do not represent the act as going on in the past. Their use as progressive (``Imperfect`` or ``Continuous``) forms is archaic or dialectic.

(b) The progressive forms are made, as in the present (190) by replacing the Ãðð by Üèð:

These, however, represent the progressive aspect of the simple past rather than of the habitual See:-

The forms ¸ðð Üèð Æðð etc. etc. do not, in fact, represent the progressive aspect of ¸ððÃðð Æðð form which they are apparently made. The similarity is purely formal. ¸ðð Üèð Æðð is really the progressive aspect corresponding to ±ðÚðð