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CHAPTER XXXI

Participles are verbal adjectives qualifying noun (or pronoun) but retaining some properties of verbs. Hindi has two kinds of Participles, Present and Past.

(a) Formation of Present and Past Participles has already been explained in 185 and 195:

etc. are Present Participles.

etc. are Past Participles.

Both the Participles are affected by the Gender, the Number, and the Case of the Nouns or Pronouns which they qualify. µðâðÃðð, µðâðð are Masc. sg., µðâðÃð, µðâð÷; Masc. pl., µðâðÃðó and µðâðó Fem. sg. or pl. The oblique forms for Masc. sg. and pl. is also µðâðÃð, µðâð÷; Fem. forms remain unchanged in the oblique.

(a) The Present Participle can be used like an ordinary Adjective:

Occasionally, however, (for the ske of clarity) a èô¡ð, èôýá or èô¦ Òõîâðð÷ü ¨îð÷ ÙðÃð Ãðð÷Àÿð÷ etc.
Both the Present Participle and the Auxiliary èô¡ð (which is the Past Participle form of èð÷) must agree with the Noun they qualify. Present Participles can also be used as Adverbs (usually as Adverbs of time and manner), in which case they have the oblique (-¦) form, and are often repeated:

When a Present Participle is used as part of the Predicate, it has an adverbial sense, and consequently the oblique form:

With èó, a Present Participle (oblique) denotes ``immediately after``, ``as soon as``:

A Present Participle, like other Adjectives, can be used also as a Noun, in which case it is declined like an -¡ð Noun (90) :

(a) A Past Participle can be used as an ordinary Adjective with or without èô¡ð, èôýá, èô¦:

(b) It can be used, like a Present Participle, as a Noun:

The adverbial use of a Past Participle is similar to that of a Present Participle.

±ð¦ ò×ðÐðð or (ò×ðÐðð ±ð¦), ÑðÁÿ÷ ò×ðÐðð or (ò×ðÐðð ÑðÁÿ÷) etc. denote `without going (having gone)», `without reading (having read)», when ò×ðÐðð is a Preposition (or Post-Position). See:- The Post-positions ÙððÜ÷, ò×ðÐðð and òçðãðð (Úð) are sometimes used, for the sake of emphasis, before the Noun which they govern:-

The Verb ¨îÜ itself forms its Absolutive by appending ¨÷î: ¨îܨ÷î `having done`.

Note: (i) The Absolutive forms should always be written as two separate words: ¸ðð ¨îÜ, ®ðð ¨îÜ, ÑðÁÿ ¨îÜ, etc., not as ¸ðð¨îÜ, ®ðð¨îÜ, ÑðÁÿ¨îÜ etc. But ¨îܨ÷î may be writtern as one word.

¸ðð ¨îܨ÷î, ®ðð ¨îܨ÷î are archaic and should be discarded, ¸ðð¨÷î, ®ðð¨÷î are similarly to be avoided, ¡ðÐð ¨îÜ for ¡ð ¨îÜ is dialectic and should similarly be avoided. Pairs of allied Verbs can form a `Compound Absolutive:

244. (a) The Absolutive is generally adverbial in nature. As its name suggests, it is not affected by the gender, number or case of the subject or of the object. It has various significations :

(b) The following special uses may be noted:

For Passive and Impersonal forms,

(a) Amongst Participles may be included the ãððâðð forms. These also are made by appending ãððâðð to the Oblique Infinitive forms, and are adjectival in nature, denoting ``one who does``:

When used predicative words, they may imply futurity:

ãððâðð can also be appended to nouns in which case it denotes `one who sells ...........`, 0
`one who deals in..........`,
`one who is concerned with........` etc.

These, of course, are not Participles, but simple Adjectives.

Being Adjectives, they are affected by Number and Gender of the Noun whcih they qualify (-ãððâðð, - ãððâðó, - ãððâð÷), or can be used as Nouns themselves (-ãððâðð÷ü ¨îð÷ etc.). -ãððâð, a variant of - ãððâðð is attached to place-names for forming certain surnames, etc. :

CHAPTER XXXII

Since ``causing something tobe done`` is an action which must be directed towards somebody, all Causative Verbs are invariably Transitive. The Causatives are made by adding an - ¡ð either to the bare root or to its modified form (249_.

A Causative Verb has the same forms (Voice, Moods etc.) as an ordinary Transitive Verb.

247. (a) Many Verbs have an additional Causal form, usually called ``the Second Causal`` which is made by adding - ãðð to the bare root or to its modified form.

(b) It must, however, be remembered that the second causal form is restricted to such verbs whose first causals denote real activity on the part of their `doer`, not merely `getting something done.` Thus, the first causal of ÑðÁÿÐðð `to study, to learn` is ÑðÁÿðÐðð `to teach` which is a real activity on the part of the teacher, not merely `making (the student) learn` (which can be done by anybody who is able to persuade or frighten the students to learn!). This verb, therefore may form a second causal, ÑðÁÿãððÐðð which would mean `to get a student taught (by a teacher)». Similarly, the first causal of ò±ðÜÐðð `to fall` is ò±ðÜðÐðð `to fell`, which denotes an activity on the part of the person (a labourer etc.) who fells (a tree etc.), and not merely ``directing or presuading (a tree etc.) ``to fall``. This, accordingly, can have a second causal ò±ðÜãððÐðð which would mean ``to get (a tree etc.) felled (by a labourer etc.)»« . On the other hand, in the case of a root like ¨îÜÐðð `to do`, the first causal `¨îÜðÐðð` to get done` does not denote an activity on the part of the subject, but merely an order or a direction to somebody (a servant etc.) to do something. This verb, therefore, cannot have a second causal. Its second causal form ¨îÜãððÐðð is (unfortunately) in existence, but is identical in meaning with the first causal ¨îÜðÐðð. Many such ``false`` second causals are in common use. They have, in fact, been formed on the analogy of ``true`` second causals (like ÑðÁÿãððÐðð, ò±ðÜãððÐðð etc.), and should be treated as mere alternative forms (which had better be discarded) of the first causals. Under 249, all the ``false`` causals have been given in brackets.

2019-12-29

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